Over time, science has bolstered the process of understanding the universe through knowledge organization, hypotheses testing, and multiple predictions over the future of the earth. These advancements keep on changing as scientists acquire new skills and techniques for conducting their researches. The earliest scientific evidence is traceable to the 3000 BCE in regions such as Mesopotamia where the Greek began introducing various ideologies to explain topics such as mathematics, religion, and the astronomy. With this background, this paper will focus on primary sources of literature to outline the history of science in the 20^th century and the varied political, social, and cultural contexts.

The 20^th century marks one of the greatest periods in the history of science. The era is remarkable for the immense contributions in all research fields. These efforts are attributable to other factors such as the diverse study methods available to the researchers and the integration of technology in major aspects of life. Each investigation is largely focused on meeting some multidisciplinary demands that can push people to infinity and progress the developments made in the past era. The 20^th century, therefore, makes attempts to understand the working of the universe. Illustratively, science in this period is characterized by initiatives such as the human landing on the moon by Neil Armstrong in 1969 (Kennedy, 1963, 1). The Academy of Science has also played an indispensable role in outlining predictability in the field, the evolution of species, the human brain, and astronomy. As a result, 20^th-century science aimed at enhancing the knowledge of the human race. More in-depth questions are being raised like the origin of physics and its influence in modern times. For instance, there is an increased understanding of the universal structure, matter and its components, and the guiding principles on notions such as motion. The Newtonian laws and theories have led to the development of advanced weapons most of which are nuclear. As a result, there has been the development of astrophysics that unifies the various physics’ concepts.

Astronomy

In astronomy, there was a greater space exploration that resulted in a deeper grasp of evolution. Ideologies such as the Big Bang theory were popularized with scientists discovering more planets in the universe. Pluto was identified as the smallest planet but was soon cut out as a planetoid. Further, researchers discovered that life was inexistent in the other heavenly bodies.

However, the concept was still underdeveloped since the 21^st century has led to the possibility of life in Mars. People like Victor Safronov wrote publications with several astronomical questions that have since been resolved by new advancements. The landing on the moon mission was propelled by the tensions between America and Russia. Additionally, more nations became involved in the occasional space probe in which artificial satellites roamed the earth’s space without the engagement of any human onboard. These actions improved military intelligence, climate monitoring, communication, and geographic analysis among other crucial fields.

Gibson Roy, the Director-General of the European Space Agency explains in an interview that the rise in the use of nuclear weapons led to the International Atomic Energy Agency discussions to ensure that all the countries involved adopting safer practices (Gibson, 2010, 1).

He further outlines that such scientific developments led to suspicions due to the involvement of Russia and America. There were also concerns over the wellbeing of the employees working in the delegation and the need to join the European Space Research Organization for a better overview of scientific matters.

Biology

Considerations like tissue typing, blood transfusion, organ transplants, and immunosuppressive drugs were also accepted despite the resistance from some members of the church who perceived the act as detrimental to the sanctity of life. People could get artificial hearts through pacemakers and hence they could prolong their lives. Some of the notable figures linked to the biological development include Joseph Needham, a biochemist and embryologist. Needham is remembered for his contribution to induction in embryos and the numerous publications he wrote during his visits to China. His efforts aimed at bridging the gap between Europe and Asia resulted in the rest of the world learning more about the Chinese and their civilization (Navis, 2007, 1). The University of Cambridge Digital Library supports the role played by Needham through an illustration of pictures for his visit from the Northwestern part of Chungking to Djiayukuan in Ganzu province (Needham, 1944, 1). Finally, the history of science in the 20^th century involves the identification of new farming methods. These practices included the genetic modification of seeds to make them resistant to damage by pests and diseases. This measure would in turn increase the likelihood of a good harvest. Such improvements meant that the population would have more food for sustenance in both the rainy and dry seasons. Unfortunately, there was an unexpected population increase forcing researchers to develop contraceptives as a population growth control measure. This move foresaw the rise in premarital sex especially in regions where such acts were forbidden. Generally, improved hygiene led to a minimization of mortality rates among communities.

Information Technology

In information technology, data has become a valued commodity with many aiming to communicate better with their friends, family, and colleagues. Further, they seek to stay in touch with current trends. The integration of technology in the 20^th century has led to the discovery of new treatment choices in the medical field. Previously life-threatening ailments are manageable through safer practices like organ transplants and the use of robots in various forms of therapy. Technology has also ushered in airplanes, electricity, and various forms of automobiles. The Whittle Power jet Papers affirm the role played by individuals like Frank Whittle in ensuring that people enjoyed the luxury brought about by the use of turbo-jet engines (Evans, 2016, 1). The approach works by guaranteeing propulsion from the ejection of gas from an engine’s nozzle. This innovation was an improvement to the former piston engines and is held in high regard especially since it was developed during a war. Despite coming from a humble background, Whittle was determined to see his dreams actualize and consistently put in the work to prove his thesis on the future of airplanes.

Chemistry

In Chemistry, the era began with an invention of the chromatography as an analytic element. It was also discovered that atoms contain electrons in the nucleus. With the knowledge in atomic structures, Fritz Haber established the Haber process essential in the production of Ammonia through the combination of hydrogen and nitrogen. The product was utilized in fertilizers and thus contributed to the world food supply. Haber is also known for the introduction of chemical warfare in which poisonous gases were used as weapons during wars. After his era, Albert Einstein helped in confirming the atomic theory through Brownian motion. Subsequently, others suggested alterations to the atomic structure models which contributed to the creation of products such as plastic which have adversely damaged the environment specifically the marine life. The century also comprised of studies like the oil drop experiment to assess any variations in the electron's charges in multiple atoms. Einstein’s proposal on the relationship between timing and energy led to the development of a photoelectric reinforcement in analyzing Planck’s concept. Scientists identified the methods of gauging acidity and employed the periodic table through a proper organization of atoms in various compounds. The art of crystallography explained the crystalized structure of some items. It is also during this era that quantum mechanics became popularized. Bohr stated that electrons existed in orbits Justas the planets revolved around the sun. The negatively charged electrons often orbit a positively charged nucleus.

Concerns

These scientific developments in the 20^th century have also raised many concerns such as the role of science in society especially with the environmental changes that make the earth more vulnerable to extinction. Key to this question is the follow up on ethical considerations and the focus on cultural or religious thoughts even as science seeks to improve communities.

Nonetheless, the concept has grown to more of a human need and right as compared to previous years. A publication edited by Toss Gascoigne and colleagues presents the growth of science as a key solution to many of the problems the world faces (Broks et al., 2020, 2). As a result, more people are speaking upon the need for the communication of any findings while countries are investing many resources to ensure that their countries have the best research facilities. The book further outlines the unfairness in the access to study material as only the rich nations have been able to meet the scientific materials’ costs of production (Broks et al., 2020, 10). The disparity is echoed by a photo of a science class in Brazil as captured by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (HOSLAC, 2011, 1). The students studying Biology have in the past lacked the exposure to some of the instruments ready to promote scientific innovation. The hope in the picture affirms that the education system in Brazil focuses on other courses such as mining, applied sciences, agriculture, and engineering. Even though these courses are vital, Brazil cannot be classified in the same state as those with an active engagement in research initiatives. Further, the students end up losing focus in scientific courses due to the high possibility of unemployment upon their completion. The book, therefore, resolves to collect as much scientific communication from around the globe to gain the equality necessary in the field. Also, the aim is to expose more people to science despite the numerous volume of available content. Through knowledge creation, these individuals will be educated to address important matters like environmental conservation, healthcare delivery, and the successful integration of technology in all industries.

Apart from the mentioned categories, the primary sources on the history of science in the 20^th century have proven the effect on contexts namely the social, political, and cultural.

Politically, they prove the uneven growth in government structures as influenced by aspects such as war. Most of the figures interested in governance ended up becoming presidents while others are remembered for their sober inputs into issues influencing the existing social facts and realism in understanding human beings. A key contribution is a publication titled The Process of Government by Arthur Bentley. This 1908 article is instrumental in opposing abstractions for a more observable approach determined by different groups. How each of these groupings interacted pre-established the laws, leaders, and population behaviors and reactions. Other philosophers came up with the reconstruction method in which statistics would be used to enhance the findings made by the observations. Alternatively, there was the quantification of human elements such as the subconscious and rationality for a more concise inference on political behaviors. There are issues with the politicization of science in situations such as the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Burr, 2005, 1). The atomic bombs used as a means to end the pacific war and meet the interests of the American population still has a great impact in modern times due to its ethical concerns. Many people lost their lives even though it is clear that the Japanese wanted to surrender before the bombs were dropped on their land. The primary sources include intercepted communications of the emperor’s intentions (Burr, 2005, 1). Many have been left wondering whether there would have been a different outcome in case the course of action was delayed or stopped altogether. Culturally, some of the scientific developments modified the cultural practices of the communities by viewing their actions as outdated.

According to Bud et al. (2018), many people were inclined to artistic presentations as the core exclamation points for various phenomena until mathematical expressions became them the viable way of comprehending concepts (14). Fortunately, the emergence of new developments was akin to the creation of new traditions in which more people were interested in notions such as technology, modern architecture, and engineering. These effects translate into the social sphere in which the primary literature sources present the increased interactions among individuals due to the need to communicate scientific findings. Also, individuals recognize the impact of emerging technologies and strive to ensure that the benefits of existing science outweigh the risks.

In conclusion, the primary sources were elaborative on the history of science in the 20^th century. Before the era, science was still instrumental in helping human beings understand different facets of their universal existence. Dating back to the domination of the Greek, people have always been inquisitive to know more about the planet and other heavenly bodies. Science in the 20^th century is evident in all many fields such as astronomy, biology, chemistry, and information technology. The medical system has seen major developments in the available treatment options while there is an increased variety of food products through genetic modification attempts. However, the primary sources also highlight issues such as the impact of climate change due to the adversity caused by the use of plastics. Also, the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki whose effects are still evident in current times. It is therefore important to ensure that scientific developments are in reasonable measures for the sustainability of populations.

References

Broks, P., Gascoigne, T., Leach, J., Lewenstein, B.V., Massarani, L., Riedlinger, M. and Schiele, B., 2020. Communicating Science: A Global Perspective.

Bud, R., Greenhalgh, P., James, F. and Shiach, M., 2018. Being modern: the cultural impact of science in the early twentieth century (p. 438). UCL Press.

Burr, W., 2005. The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II A Collection of Primary Sources. The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II: A Collection of Primary Sources. Available at: https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/index.htm [Accessed December 8, 2020].

Evans, R.L., 2016. Peterhouse: Peterhouse, Whittle Power Jet Papers. Available at: https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-WHITTLE-00001/1 [Accessed December 8, 2020].

Gibson, R., 2010. Oral history of British science. Sounds. Available at: https://sounds.bl.uk/Oral- history/Science/021M-C1379X0019XX-0005V0 [Accessed December 8, 2020].

HOSLAC, 2011. Teaching the Basic Sciences in Brazil. HOSLAC. Available at: https://mypages.unh.edu/hoslac/book/teaching-basic-sciences-brazil [Accessed December 8, 2020].

Kennedy, J.F., 1963. We choose to go to the Moon. Speech presented at Address at Rice University on the Nation's Space Effort in Rice University, Houston (1962, September 12).

Navis, A.R., 2007. Joseph Needham (1900-1995). Embryo Project Encyclopedia.

Needham, J., 1944. Joseph Needham: NW - Northwest journey. Cambridge Digital Library.

Available at: https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PH-NRI-00002-00010-00001-00001-00002 [Accessed December 8, 2020].