Professional Chemistry Assignment Help for Mastering Molecular Logic

Introduction The scientific revolution occurred during the early modern period when advances in chemistry, physics, biology, astronomy, and mathematics shifted societal perspectives on nature. The scientific revolution has its roots in Europe. It occurred near the end of the Renaissance and lasted until the late eighteenth century and greatly influenced the Enlightenment intellectual, social movement. In the middle ages, the scientific revolution had its foundations on ancient Greek learning and science, which had been developed and refined by medieval Islamic and science Roman science. During the scientific revolution, the importance of experimentation to the scientific method was confirmed, as medieval scientific philosophy was rejected and the new theories proposed by Galileo, Newton Descartes and Bacon favored. The scientific revolution started in Astronomy before quickly spreading to other fields (Schuster, 2020). Despite earlier discussions suggesting that the Earth was in constant motion, Nicolaus Copernicus, a renowned Polish astronomer, proposed the first comprehensive heliocentric theory equal in scope and predictive capability to Ptolemy’s geocentric system. The Roman Catholic Church was powerful during the revolution. The society looked up to the Church before the birth and development of science, and they believed everything the Church taught. After the unfolding of the developments in science, the Church was in constant conflict with science (Karagözoğlu, 2017). There were two reasons for the disagreement between scientists and the Church. One reason was that scientific philosophies ran counter to Church doctrines. The second reason was that church leaders believed that people who disagreed with Church teachings weakened the Church. For this reason, the scientific revolution quickly spread to physics as there were serious conflicts with what the Church stated concerning astronomy. Curiosity, investigation, discovery, and knowledge were encouraged during the Renaissance. People’s old beliefs were also called into question. Scientists began using experiments and mathematics to solve mysteries during this time. Curiosity, for instance, was one of the reasons for the utility of science during the scientific revolution. People wanted to know how and why things were the way they are. Other reasons given for the utility of science during the scientific revolution is alchemy. There was a growing interest in alchemy during this time. People were inspired to explore alchemy and find out the workings of nature. The state of civilization after the industrial civilization is referred to as industrial civilization and was characterized by the use of powered machines and other inventions (McClellan & Dorn, 2015). Capitalism was one of the economic factors that led to the inventions necessary for the industrial revolution. The industrial revolution needed enormous financial inputs from individuals rather than the government (Vries, 2008). Wealthy entrepreneurs were crucial because they used their fortunes to fund factories that required inventions. Without the emergence of capitalism, this investment from individuals guided by the profit motive would not have been possible. Theories played an important role in the inventions during the industrial revolution because they guided scientists on how these inventions should be developed. During the 19th century, theoretical science played an important role in industry and engineering. Scientific theories provided the basis for inventions in both industry and engineering. These theories guided engineers in developing machines and devices that helped in the revolution. Conclusion The scientific revolution was characterized by advances in science. It started in astronomy but did not last as it brought serious conflicts with the powerful Roman Catholic Church. Curiosity was one of the main reasons why science was utilized during this period, as scientists wanted to explain natural phenomena. The industrial revolution, on the other hand, was sustained by inventions that were triggered by factors like capitalism. During this time, scientific theories played an important role in inventions. References Karagözoğlu, B. (2017). Brief History of Western Modernization. In Science and Technology from Global and Historical Perspectives (pp. 185-203). Springer, Cham McClellan iii, J. E., & Dorn, H. (2015). Science and technology in world history: an introduction. JHU Press. Schuster, J. (2020). The Scientific Revolution. 10.1201/9781003070818-21. Vries, P. (2008). The Industrial Revolution.

For years, many disciplines have benefited extensively through various contributions that rely on the physics foundation for analyzing data and creating amicable solutions to problems in various fields. Various models and laws applicable in physics are valuable in understanding how our universes behave from how tiny charged objects move as well to the motion of spaceships, cars, and people. Modern technological breakthroughs have been attributed due to significant contributions from physics applications. The creation of efficient and operational digital technologies such as hardware and software components developed by information technology engineers revolves around the fundamental knowledge generated from physics applications to conceptualize advancements aimed at driving the world's economic engine. Its mass application in the engineering profession shows its several significance to our daily undertakings, for example, information technology engineers rely on physics knowledge to creation of several devices. For instance, the selection of appropriate circuit layouts and appropriate materials in smartphone creation requires physics knowledge to ensure the proper interaction of electricity with various circuits encompassed in the device. The application based on the concepts of photonics and electronics often applied in developing consumer computers that have DVD or CD-ROM devices. Therefore, the knowledge of physics and technology interact on various scales as the principles surrounding physics act as a grounding idea for computation fundamentally for digital computing entities. The different technological innovations are a result of various theoretical breakthroughs made possible by the study and application of physics principles. The concepts of physic are valuable in comprehending the big data learning process through the Internet of Things (IoT) which applies unknown parameters to describing how devices connect to the internet. Additionally, knowledge can be applied to calculating the time, distance, and speed an object travels from one point to another based on the laws of physics about the usage of its equation such as in GPS keeping in mind the principle related to sensor design (Peng et al., 2020). For instance, GPS application is understood in a Newtonian environment as it takes into account the aspects of general relativity for proper functionality. Additionally, in rockets, rifles, and other projectile devices design applies the third Newton law of Motion as well as Bernoulli's principle. During a spaceship or rocket launch, the reactions of forces to engineers hence, taking the approach to their benefit as it displays how fuel is burned to exert a downward force that pushes the rocket into the air. Besides, newton's law of force is applied to marketing as the formula states that acceleration times mass equals force, hence, when the technique is effectively executed in selling a product the expectation of the end outcome is positive. Consequently, once in motion, it's essential for marketers not to rest as it's presumed the biggest mistake of any marketing agency. Thus, to ensure the brand is suitable for the market the law is essential as produced products are required to constantly remain in motion and consistent to ensure the series of success achieved is long term however the challenges of sustaining momentum (Norrish et al., 2021). Further, the counteract newton application illustrates that opposite forces are felt to maintain momentum such as unexpected competition, it's essential to be ready for any opposition. For instance, the release of the Reebok Pump in the '80s sent Nike into a tailspin which was followed by the invention of the Nike Air series and a partnership deal with Michael Jordan NBA legend enabling the firm to reach unimaginable success. Thus, physics applicability is essential in all aspects involved in engineering from the time an object is conceptualized to the time it gets in the hands of the user. References Norrish, J., Polden, J., & Richardson, I. M. (2021). A Review of Wire Arc Additive manufacturing: Development, Principles, Process Physics, Implementation and Current Status. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics. Peng, S. L., Pal, S., & Huang, L. (Eds.). (2020). Principles of internet of things (IoT) ecosystem: Insight paradigm (pp. 263-276). Springer International Publishing.

Physics 244 is a crucial course as it explains more about the modern physics and how carry out certain experiments in the laboratory. Ideally, this course offers the students a chance to learn practical application of different concepts in physics. In this way, they are able to engage microscopic world and learn various elements, such as electrons and atoms among others, and how they influence the physical world. Through laboratory sessions, students are able to comprehensively understand the qualities, characteristics, and application of these elements in to daily activities and objects. Therefore, theoretical and practical experience will equip the students with the necessary knowledge to learn more about electrons, atoms, nuclei, and molecules, which have a significant impact on the physical world. Typically, the laboratory experiments provide suitable knowledge for students to have a broader perspective regarding the modern world, as well as gaining an understanding on different scientific concepts. Such opportunities will also help me to have a clear understanding of all the ideals and concepts leant in this course. Technically, laboratory experiments represents an ideal environment for students to apply and gain important knowledge, which they can use to develop other crucial concepts and scientific materials. These experience help students to gain essential skills not only in the academic atmosphere but also in real life; therefore, making students develop all-rounded life skills. Teamwork in performing scientific experiments is an ideal strategy that students can utilize to gain more understanding involving the microscopic world. Working as a team appears to have added advantages compared to working alone. The primary objective of teamwork include having similar purpose, which assist members to execute certain tasks more accurately and on time. Therefore, unity is achieved as they work to accomplish a common goal. Moreover, working together as a team brings out collaboration where the work is done, and it is performed faster. Additionally, working as a team, creativity is achieved. Working together brings out positivity in terms of attitudes and work ethics are promoted which results in exploring more options. Besides, working as a team assist the team members to have developed clear tasks and deadlines when they want to finish their works. For instance, in the when working as a team in the lab experiments, experiments can be performed in a more effective manner and within a short duration if the tasks are shared among the team members. In such cases, all the data, the required information and the findings are usually compiled together. Furthermore, working together as a team during laboratory experiments the constraints experienced are removed which can hinder the team members from achieving the required results. In case one of the team members have a little understanding concerning a specific laboratory experiment, he or she may be guided by other team members who have proper knowledge of the laboratory. Another benefit of working as a team during laboratory experiment is that the group members can appreciate their strengths and weaknesses in certain areas; therefore they get help from each other. Working with peers usually is more productive as they typically understand each other as compared to when the instructor's student relationship is involved. Another advantage of working as a team is that students are prepared to face the real world situations where individuals cannot perform some tasks. In this case, they will help one another be able to complete the task which is likely to take an individual longer time before he or she finishes the work. Working as a team also assists the students in giving and being able to follow orders and influence others to be responsible and committed team players. Besides, team members usually become responsive as it becomes easy for them to adopt changes. Typically, the following laboratory policies play a very crucial role in the laboratory area. For example, a particular policy for the students to always follow instructions when in the laboratory can play a significant role in preventing them from endangering themselves as well as other students. Moreover, the following guidelines help in preventing the students from ruining the experiments which are being performed. The cases of accidents to occur in the laboratory are also put at the minimal which are likely to cause damages to the equipment and eventually causing harm to the students. As a student when one fails to follow instructions he or she may stand a chance of being suspended from school; therefore policies play a significant part. Additionally, knowing the location of the safety equipment is also a lab policy that should be followed. This policy will assist the students in being aware of where the laboratory equipment are stored and their uses. Students will also be able to check whether the equipments are in the working order. Dressing appropriately for the lab is also an important policy that should be followed. Proper dressing for the lab experiments will help in preventing injuries in case an accident may occur in the laboratory. For examples, during performing laboratory experiments there are great dressing that should be worn.They include the following; protective gear is one of them, gloves and hearing protection, as well as protective clothing. Drinking or Eating in the laboratory is another crucial policy that should be followed. Eating in the laboratory is prohibited as there is the likelihood of the food being contaminated with chemicals as well as experiments. Moreover, when dining in the lab, it is likely to disrupt students as they perform; therefore, it is not advisable. Another laboratory policy that should be followed involves disposing of the waste after the experiment is done. It is not right to leave the waste after the experiment is done for the next student to clean them. Additionally, knowing what to do in case an accident in the laboratory occurs is very crucial. For example, students are usually advised to inform the instructors in case such an accident happen. Experiment entails the coulomb balance. Therefore, the objective of the lab was to assist the students in gaining an understanding of how the Coulomb law works through taking measurements of the force between two charged spheres as a function of distance. Additionally, the lab was aimed at investigating the impact of systematic errors found on the measurements. Furthermore, at the end of the experiment, the students would be able to understand the challenges of modeling real charged systems as point charges. Therefore, the required equipments include the coulomb torsion balance. In this case, there was the placing of the balance in place as demonstrated in the figure below. Additionally, the twisting of the wire back again was done by the experimenter to accomplish the equilibrium. The high voltage was employed in charging of the identical spheres. The experiment was used to confirm the coulomb that was studied in class. The Coulomb law discusses about the existing force between two charged particles. In experiment 2, field mapping was covered. The primary purpose of the lab was to learn how the electric field can be mapped in regards to the field lines as well as the exponential surfaces. Additionally, the experiment was aimed at assisting the students in learning how they can determine the field magnitude as well as its direction by measuring the potential gradient. Besides, the aim of the experiment was also to do away with assumptions on the theoretical models on charge distribution by working with real objects. In this case, the equipment and apparatus required for the lab include a digital multimeter which is denoted as (DMM). Therefore, the DMM was employed in measuring the potential difference at different points. Additionally, the conductive surface with electrodes was also required. Besides, a power supply and a recording material which in this case a graph paper was necessary. When measuring the potential difference, the ground is considered, and the negative terminal is supposed to be always connected to the ground. Therefore, the impacts of how the charge is distributed can be realized by using the electric fields. From the results and the graph which was drawn from the results, the potential difference represents the gradient of the electric potential. Moreover, the magnitude of the electric field is used to determine how fast the electric potential is. Typically, the electric field moves from the more substantial potential to the lower potential. The electric field is visible on the electrical field lines. The students were given a warning not to put any mark or write on the conductive surface to prevent from interfering with the uniformity of the conductive paper. In experiment four, it involved electrostatic capacitance. The experiment explores how Guss law is applied to the conductive object. Additionally, the lab is aimed at exploring the relationship of the charge stored in a parallel plate capacitor and its geometry. Apparatus and equipment include a source of charge, a proof of plane as well as an electrometer. The experiment was conducted with guidance provided and the help of the lab technician. Additionally, the teams were cautioned not touch any conducting material directly as it may be under high potential. The topic assisted the students in understanding the topic of capacitance better. Therefore, they were able to utilize those concepts learned in class in real life. In experiment 5 it was on resistance and on the measurement. The objective of the experiment was to equip the students with knowledge on how they can measure strength by employing the Wheatstone and the multimeter. Additionally, it would also assist the students in determining the resistivity of the material. Therefore, the Wheatstone bridge was utilized in measuring the unknown resistance accurately. Digital multimeter was also an essential part of the experiment. The following equation is necessary for the experiment. R= ρ  L A Where; L= length ρ= resistivity A= cross sectional area In experiment 6, it involves measuring the current in a multiloop circuit and comparing them with the values of the current that was calculated. The experiment is based on the principle Of Kirchhoff's rules. Therefore, this rule tells about the sum of the currents in a junction that adds up to zero. In this lab, a circuit which has known values of resistance is built in the protoboard. Using the circuit, the current as a function of the voltage at different locations were measured. A graph was plotted for emf against the current to help in determining if the slope was equal to the resistance values of the resistors. The concept of electric potential and an electric field is applied in this experiment. The electric potential infers to the potential energy per unit charge. Therefore, finding the potential difference, determining the work on a unit charge was done. The work performed represents the potential difference between the final as well as initial points. The concepts of this experiment are fundamental in the day to day engineering activities in the field of design of electric circuits. Additionally, the idea is employed in troubleshooting for electronic faults in electronics and the electrical circuits with a mesh loop topology. In experiment seven it is about the Rc circuits. Then the lab aims to explore the discharge behavior of an RC circuit. Therefore, it would involve, measuring the value of the capacitor from the discharge feature of the RC circuit. Finally, the experiment aims at applying the LCR Bridge when measuring the capacitance. For an RC circuit, a capacitor charges when a voltage source is connected to the capacitor. The charged capacitor can discharge through the resistor when the voltage source is disconnected. Thus, the law of the. Kirchhoff’s voltage can be employed in finding the expression of the voltage drop across the capacitor. In the lab, a known value of the resistor was employed in discharging a capacitor. The capacitor was connected to the circuit and as the capacitor was being removed. Then the drop in voltage was recorded for every 20 seconds. Additionally, a graph of the natural log of voltage drop initial voltage was plotted whose slope would provide the inverse of the time constant of the RC circuit. An RC circuit is an essential component of power automatic regulation devices. The discharge and the charging of the capacitor are employed as inverters to help in smoothening of the output voltage. The capacitor is also employed in reactive power regulation. Additionally, the capacitor bank is applied in control of the reactive power. The capacitor plates are the same as electric dipoles. Additionally, some charges exist of equal size with opposite charges in the plates of the capacitor. Some distance, d separate the charges. The experiment is about the e/m apparatus, electron source, glass bulb, and Helmholtz coils to measure the mass charge ratio of an electron using the deflection of particles in a magnetic field. This lab represents the velocity selector application. Additionally, the mass charge ratio was determined at the point when the magnetic force exactly cancels with the electric force. The equation of the motion of the electron in a magnetic field helps in determining the expression of the ratio of charge to mass. Besides, the experiment of the measurement of e/m needs a good knowledge of the magnetic field. Moreover, the equation of the motion of an electron represents a magnetic field to what was covered in class in assisting in determining the forces in the magnetic field. Therefore, the equation begins from the Lorentz law. In determining the charge to mass ratio that may be utilized in mass spectrometry. In such an instance, the mass of a particle can be determined by studying the electron charge of the particle. Experiment 10 is about the law of Faraday. The objective of the experiment is to investigate the generation of the electromotive force found in the coil when it is exposed to a time-dependent magnetic field. Additionally, the experiment examines emf which is produced in a rotating coil in a fixed magnetic field. The experiment is base on Faradays’s represents the emf induced expression. Usually, an emf is generated when the electromagnetic is induced. Therefore, the produced emf is provided by; E=−N d ∅ dt In this case, N represents the number of loops found in a coil. Additionally,   ∅   it means the magnetic flux and dt is changed in time. The knowledge of magnetism and the magnetic field is used in this experiment. Then the experiments that are employed in the experiment are obtained from the equations of Maxwell and Helmholtz. Additionally, Lens’s laws support the continuity of the generation of emf. This experiment is very crucial in electrical engineering as the electric energy is produced basing on the law of Faraday.   Works Cited Nilsson, James William, and Susan A. Riedel. Electric circuits. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2015. Potkonjak, Veljko, et al. "Virtual laboratories for education in science, technology, and engineering: A review." Computers & Education 95 (2016): 309-327. Szabó, Zoltán. "The history of the 125 year old Eötvös torsion balance." Acta Geodaetica et Geophysica 51.2 (2016): 273-293.

Thermodynamic processes that occur spontaneously are all irreversible; that is, they proceed naturally in one direction but never reverse. A rolling wheel across a rough road converts mechanical energy into heat due to friction. The former is irreversible, just as it is impossible that a wheel at rest would spontaneously start moving and getting colder as it moves instead. In this paper, the second law will be introduced by considering several thermodynamic devices: (1) heat engines, which are partly successful in converting heat into mechanical work, and (2) refrigerators and heat pumps, which are partly successful in transferring heat from cooler to hotter regions. Heat Engines The essence of our technological society is the ability to utilize energy resources other than muscle power. These energy resources come in many forms (e.g. solar, geothermal, wind, and hydroelectric). But even though we have a number of them available in the environment, most of the energy used for machinery comes from burning fossil fuels. This process yields heat, which then can be directly used for heating buildings in frigid climate, for cooking and pasteurization, and chemical processing. But to operate motors and machines, we need to transform heat into mechanical energy. Any device that converts heat partly into mechanical energy or work is called a heat engine. They absorb heat from a source at a relatively high temperature, i.e. a hot reservoir (like combustion of fuel), perform mechanical work, and discard some heat at a lower temperature (Young & Freedman, 2019). In correspondence to the first law of thermodynamics, the initial and final internal energies of this system are equal when carried through a cyclic process, as in Fig. 1 Schematic energy-fiow diagram for a heat engine Thus, we can say that net heat flowing into the engine in a cyclic process is equal to the net work done by the engine (Brown et al., 2017). We can illustrate how energy is transformed in a heat engine using the energy-flow diagram (Fig. 1). The engine itself is represented by the circle. The amount of heat QH supplied to the engine by the hot reservoir is directly proportional to the width of the incoming “pipeline” at the top of the diagram. The width of the outgoing pipeline at the bottom is proportional to the magnitude |QC| of the heat discarded in the exhaust. The branch arrow to the right represents the portion of the heat supplied that the engine converts to mechanical work, W. When an engine repeats the same cycle over and over, QH and QC represent the quantities of heat absorbed and rejected by the engine during one cycle; QH is positive, and QC is negative. The net heat Q absorbed per cycle is =       +     =||−|| The useful output of the engine is the net work W done by the working substance. From the first law, =                 =             +           =||−|| Ideally, we would like to convert all the heat QH into work; in that case we would haven QH = W and QC = 0. Experience shows that this is impossible; there is always some heat wasted, and QC is never zero. We define the thermal efficiency of an engine, denoted by e as the quotient The thermal efficiency e represents the fraction of QH that is converted to work. To put it another way, e is what you get divided by what you pay for. This is always less than unity, an all-too-familiar experience! In terms of the flow diagram of Fig. 1, the most efficient engine is one for which the branch pipeline representing the work output is as wide as possible and the exhaust pipeline representing the heat thrown away is as narrow as possible.   When we substitute the two expressions for W given by Eq. 1.2 into Eq. 1.3, we get the following equivalent expressions for e: Fig. 2.1 Schematic energy-flow diagram for a refrigerator Refrigerator and Heat Pump We can understand the mechanism of a refrigerator as opposed to a heat engine. As explained in the first part, a heat engine takes heat from a hot reservoir and gives it off to a colder place. A refrigerator operates in reverse, i.e. it takes heat from a cold place (inside of the refrigerator) and gives off that heat into a warmer place, often the surrounding air in the room where the refrigerator is located. In addition, while a heat engine has a net output of mechanical work, the refrigerator requires a net input of mechanical work (Poredoš, 2021). Fig 2.1 shows an energy-flow diagram for a refrigerator. From the first law of thermodynamics for a cyclic process, +−=0 −=− or because both QH and W are negative, ||=                   +|               | It only shows that the heat |QH| given off from the working substance and given to the hot reservoir is always greater than the heat QC taken from the cold reservoir. From an economic point of view, the most efficient refrigeration cycle is one that takes off the greatest amount of heat |QC| from inside the refrigerator for the least use of mechanical work, |W|. The relevant ratio is |QC|/|W|, called the coefficient of performance, K, which implies that the larger this ratio is, the better the refrigerator. A variation on this is the heat pump, which functions like a refrigerator, but turned inside out. A heat pump is used to heat buildings by cooling the air outside. The evaporator coil is placed outside, as it takes heat from cold air, while the condenser coils are inside, which gives off heat to the warmer air. In this design, the heat |QH| taken inside a building can be considerably greater than the work |W| needed to get it there. Conclusion In the bottom line, it is impossible to create a heat engine that completely converts heat to work, i.e. 100% thermal efficiency. It only corresponds to the second law of thermodynamics which states that it is impossible for any system to undergo a process in which it absorbs heat from a reservoir at a single temperature and converts the heat completely into mechanical work, with the system ending in the same state in which it began. Heat flows spontaneously from hotter to colder objects, never the reverse. A refrigerator does take heat from a colder to a hotter object, but its operation requires an input of mechanical energy or work. We can deduce that it is impossible for any process to have as its sole result the transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter object.   References Brown, T. L., LeMay, Jr., H. E., Bursten, B. E., Murphy, C. J., Woodward, P. M. (2017, January 1). Chemistry: The Central Science (14th ed.). Pearson. Ozerov, R. P., & Vorobyev, A. A. (2007). 3 - Molecular Physics. Physics for Chemists. (), 169–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-044452830-8/50005-2 Poredoš, A. (2021, April 25). Thermodynamics of Heat Pump and Refrigeration Cycles. Entropy, 23(5), 524. https://doi.org/10.3390/e23050524 Young, H. D., & Freedman, R. A. (2019). University Physics with Modern Physics (15th ed.). Pearson.

Introduction The early modern scientific revolution gave rise to modern science as we know it today. James McClellan and Harold Dorn say that the advancement of science that took place between mathematics and astronomy ultimately contributed to the fast rise of physics (McClellan & Dorn, 2015).An initial focus on celestial bodies led to an explosion in knowledge of physics and mathematics, as well as biology. To deal with society's perspective on nature, chemistry developed out of an earlier branch of study that dealt only with the cosmos as a whole: astronomy. Astronomy's transition to physics is built on the basis of Greek and literacy throughout the Medieval Ancient Period (Brush et al., 2019). Evidence Supporting the Quick Revolution of Science from Astronomy to Physics As a foundation for intellectual thought in the 17th century, Aristotle's Aristotelian legacy was important, although, by that time, philosophers had mostly abandoned the tradition. In their cosmology, Aristotelians put the earth in the center of their Ptolemaic model, which they considered to be the most accurate representation of the universe (McClellan & Dorn, 2015). A notion from the Middle Ages gave rise to a new age of astronomy and physical science. It was because to the Einsteinian revolution that phenomena like electromagnetic waves and electric current were discovered, as well as the fundamental knowledge of thermodynamics. Cosmetology also evolved in the modern period, and it had separate worldviews that ran counter to astronauts. As a result of Einstein's theory, different equations of matter and energy were identified throughout the twentieth century (McClellan & Dorn, 2015). The equations were crucial in the creation of the nuclear bomb, medical technology, the internet, DNA and technology. Explosion bombs were developed by using Einstein's equation for matter and energy, for example (McClellan & Dorn, 2015). Energy and thermodynamics are also important concepts in the making of the bomb. In the 17th century, philosophers and scientists were able to engage with members of the astronomical and mathematical societies, resulting in an advanced influence on their respective professions. Secondly, astronomers contributed to the insufficiency of medieval experiments, which necessitated the development of physics, and this was a major factor in the rise of physics. A solid understanding of the foundations of physics was required of the astronomers so that they could carry out their experiments. Third, there were institutions like the British Royal Society that assisted to verify physics by giving a forum for scientists to publish their results. This was one of the ways that these organizations contributed to the validation of physics (McClellan & Dorn, 2015). Also, When the Scientific Revolution began, it was seen as a major shift in how people thought (Brush et al., 2019). The scientific method, which developed an experimental, scientific approach that sought definite solutions to constrained problems couched in the context of particular theories; and the adoption of new standards for the explanation, stressing how rather than why marked this shift. The Renaissance and Reformation of the World were closely linked. Natural philosophers could congregate in societies like Paris in 1666 and others throughout the globe to investigate, debate, and critique new discoveries and old views. These debates needed a solid foundation, therefore organizations started publishing scientific articles. Over time, the ancient habit of keeping new discoveries secret by using slang, anagrams, or other esoteric language fell out of favor in favor of the ideal of open communication (Brush et al., 2019). In order to ensure that tests and results could be replicated, new reporting standards were established by others. In the 1600s, astronomy and physics were said to be tying the knot. As a result of the work of a theoretical physicist named Kepler, in 1618, his third law was established: The square of a planet's orbital position of the Sun is directly proportionate to the square of its average distance (McClellan & Dorn, 2015). This breakthrough sparked an unstoppable shift from astronomy to physics. Conclusion To sum up, the scientific revolution based on astronomy eventually led to the formation of mathematics, physics and biology, as well as a host of other disciplines. As a result of this shift in focus from astronomy to physics, the chemistry was born, which deals with how society views nature. Modern science, ranging from astronomy to physics, has its roots in ancient Greece and the knowledge it acquired throughout the Middle Ages. Philosophers and scientists of the seventeenth century were able to cooperate with astronomers and mathematicians, resulting in a rapid advancement in the respective disciplines of astronomy and mathematics. Astronomers, on the other hand, contributed to the insufficiency of medieval experiments, which necessitated the development of physics. An eventful sequence of occurrences in the early modern era signaled the beginning of the modern era's Scientific Revolution. People's changing perspective on the world and its future sparked the Scientific Revolution. Accepting our ignorance, emphasizing arithmetic and observation, aiming for imperial supremacy, and the newfound faith in progress are all good examples of cultural transformations. References Brush, S. G. , Spencer, . J. Brookes and Osler, . Margaret J. (2019, November 26). Scientific Revolution. Encyclopedia     Britannica.     Retrieved    from     https://www.britannica.com/science/Scientific- Revolution McClellan iii, J. E., & Dorn, H. (2015). Science and technology in world history: An introduction. JHU Press.                                                                                            https://books.google.co.ke/books? hl=en&lr=&id=ah1ECwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=McClellan+iii,+J.+E.,+%26+Dorn, +H.+(2015).+Science+and+technology+in+world+history:+an+introduction. +JHU+Press.&ots=uHh1EzTKya&sig=GSNVJOG0n2b2Pwoe6cCObHp6rhg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false

Over time, science has bolstered the process of understanding the universe through knowledge organization, hypotheses testing, and multiple predictions over the future of the earth. These advancements keep on changing as scientists acquire new skills and techniques for conducting their researches. The earliest scientific evidence is traceable to the 3000 BCE in regions such as Mesopotamia where the Greek began introducing various ideologies to explain topics such as mathematics, religion, and the astronomy. With this background, this paper will focus on primary sources of literature to outline the history of science in the 20th century and the varied political, social, and cultural contexts. The 20th century marks one of the greatest periods in the history of science. The era is remarkable for the immense contributions in all research fields. These efforts are attributable to other factors such as the diverse study methods available to the researchers and the integration of technology in major aspects of life. Each investigation is largely focused on meeting some multidisciplinary demands that can push people to infinity and progress the developments made in the past era. The 20th century, therefore, makes attempts to understand the working of the universe. Illustratively, science in this period is characterized by initiatives such as the human landing on the moon by Neil Armstrong in 1969 (Kennedy, 1963, 1). The Academy of Science has also played an indispensable role in outlining predictability in the field, the evolution of species, the human brain, and astronomy. As a result, 20th-century science aimed at enhancing the knowledge of the human race. More in-depth questions are being raised like the origin of physics and its influence in modern times. For instance, there is an increased understanding of the universal structure, matter and its components, and the guiding principles on notions such as motion. The Newtonian laws and theories have led to the development of advanced weapons most of which are nuclear. As a result, there has been the development of astrophysics that unifies the various physics’ concepts. Astronomy In astronomy, there was a greater space exploration that resulted in a deeper grasp of evolution. Ideologies such as the Big Bang theory were popularized with scientists discovering more planets in the universe. Pluto was identified as the smallest planet but was soon cut out as a planetoid. Further, researchers discovered that life was inexistent in the other heavenly bodies. However, the concept was still underdeveloped since the 21st century has led to the possibility of life in Mars. People like Victor Safronov wrote publications with several astronomical questions that have since been resolved by new advancements. The landing on the moon mission was propelled by the tensions between America and Russia. Additionally, more nations became involved in the occasional space probe in which artificial satellites roamed the earth’s space without the engagement of any human onboard. These actions improved military intelligence, climate monitoring, communication, and geographic analysis among other crucial fields. Gibson Roy, the Director-General of the European Space Agency explains in an interview that the rise in the use of nuclear weapons led to the International Atomic Energy Agency discussions to ensure that all the countries involved adopting safer practices (Gibson, 2010, 1). He further outlines that such scientific developments led to suspicions due to the involvement of Russia and America. There were also concerns over the wellbeing of the employees working in the delegation and the need to join the European Space Research Organization for a better overview of scientific matters. Biology In biology, the 20th century has seen the growth of genetics through the use of DNA. Researchers have been able to identify the life processes and gene mutation to aid in explaining the diversity of organisms and to prevent others from destruction. The scientists were able to clone a mammal towards the end of the century through an analysis of the gene sequencing and the Human Genome Project. Sexual reproduction and its role to organisms were better understood and concepts such as bacteria became common. Antibiotics were then popularized to minimize the mortality rates caused by these organisms. Doctors have been successful in eradicating disease like polio. More vaccines were developed for conditions like measles, influenza, chickenpox, hepatitis, tetanus, and diphtheria, among other diseases. Multidisciplinary actions have helped in elaborating evolution, and thus it is now possible to conduct tests through placebos, randomized control trials, and other advanced research methods. Tools such as X-rays became popular in the diagnosis of diseases ranging from infections to cancers. Soon enough, the scientists developed more diagnostic options like magnetic resonance imaging. Treatments also improved for conditions such as mental health illnesses with more centers and antipsychotics for depression and hallucinations. Science in the 20th century also included the acknowledgment of hazardous drugs like tobacco linked to the escalation in cancer cases. Other hard substances that were finally illegalized included cocaine and heroin. As a measure, their prices increased tremendously, but addicts turned to black markets for the same products. As a result, there was a need for more research into the effectiveness of chemotherapy and immunotherapy. Considerations like tissue typing, blood transfusion, organ transplants, and immunosuppressive drugs were also accepted despite the resistance from some members of the church who perceived the act as detrimental to the sanctity of life. People could get artificial hearts through pacemakers and hence they could prolong their lives. Some of the notable figures linked to the biological development include Joseph Needham, a biochemist and embryologist. Needham is remembered for his contribution to induction in embryos and the numerous publications he wrote during his visits to China. His efforts aimed at bridging the gap between Europe and Asia resulted in the rest of the world learning more about the Chinese and their civilization (Navis, 2007, 1). The University of Cambridge Digital Library supports the role played by Needham through an illustration of pictures for his visit from the Northwestern part of Chungking to Djiayukuan in Ganzu province (Needham, 1944, 1). Finally, the history of science in the 20th century involves the identification of new farming methods. These practices included the genetic modification of seeds to make them resistant to damage by pests and diseases. This measure would in turn increase the likelihood of a good harvest. Such improvements meant that the population would have more food for sustenance in both the rainy and dry seasons. Unfortunately, there was an unexpected population increase forcing researchers to develop contraceptives as a population growth control measure. This move foresaw the rise in premarital sex especially in regions where such acts were forbidden. Generally, improved hygiene led to a minimization of mortality rates among communities. Information Technology In information technology, data has become a valued commodity with many aiming to communicate better with their friends, family, and colleagues. Further, they seek to stay in touch with current trends. The integration of technology in the 20th century has led to the discovery of new treatment choices in the medical field. Previously life-threatening ailments are manageable through safer practices like organ transplants and the use of robots in various forms of therapy. Technology has also ushered in airplanes, electricity, and various forms of automobiles. The Whittle Power jet Papers affirm the role played by individuals like Frank Whittle in ensuring that people enjoyed the luxury brought about by the use of turbo-jet engines (Evans, 2016, 1). The approach works by guaranteeing propulsion from the ejection of gas from an engine’s nozzle. This innovation was an improvement to the former piston engines and is held in high regard especially since it was developed during a war. Despite coming from a humble background, Whittle was determined to see his dreams actualize and consistently put in the work to prove his thesis on the future of airplanes. Chemistry In Chemistry, the era began with an invention of the chromatography as an analytic element. It was also discovered that atoms contain electrons in the nucleus. With the knowledge in atomic structures, Fritz Haber established the Haber process essential in the production of Ammonia through the combination of hydrogen and nitrogen. The product was utilized in fertilizers and thus contributed to the world food supply. Haber is also known for the introduction of chemical warfare in which poisonous gases were used as weapons during wars. After his era, Albert Einstein helped in confirming the atomic theory through Brownian motion. Subsequently, others suggested alterations to the atomic structure models which contributed to the creation of products such as plastic which have adversely damaged the environment specifically the marine life. The century also comprised of studies like the oil drop experiment to assess any variations in the electron's charges in multiple atoms. Einstein’s proposal on the relationship between timing and energy led to the development of a photoelectric reinforcement in analyzing Planck’s concept. Scientists identified the methods of gauging acidity and employed the periodic table through a proper organization of atoms in various compounds. The art of crystallography explained the crystalized structure of some items. It is also during this era that quantum mechanics became popularized. Bohr stated that electrons existed in orbits Justas the planets revolved around the sun. The negatively charged electrons often orbit a positively charged nucleus. Concerns These scientific developments in the 20th century have also raised many concerns such as the role of science in society especially with the environmental changes that make the earth more vulnerable to extinction. Key to this question is the follow up on ethical considerations and the focus on cultural or religious thoughts even as science seeks to improve communities. Nonetheless, the concept has grown to more of a human need and right as compared to previous years. A publication edited by Toss Gascoigne and colleagues presents the growth of science as a key solution to many of the problems the world faces (Broks et al., 2020, 2). As a result, more people are speaking upon the need for the communication of any findings while countries are investing many resources to ensure that their countries have the best research facilities. The book further outlines the unfairness in the access to study material as only the rich nations have been able to meet the scientific materials’ costs of production (Broks et al., 2020, 10). The disparity is echoed by a photo of a science class in Brazil as captured by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (HOSLAC, 2011, 1). The students studying Biology have in the past lacked the exposure to some of the instruments ready to promote scientific innovation. The hope in the picture affirms that the education system in Brazil focuses on other courses such as mining, applied sciences, agriculture, and engineering. Even though these courses are vital, Brazil cannot be classified in the same state as those with an active engagement in research initiatives. Further, the students end up losing focus in scientific courses due to the high possibility of unemployment upon their completion. The book, therefore, resolves to collect as much scientific communication from around the globe to gain the equality necessary in the field. Also, the aim is to expose more people to science despite the numerous volume of available content. Through knowledge creation, these individuals will be educated to address important matters like environmental conservation, healthcare delivery, and the successful integration of technology in all industries. Apart from the mentioned categories, the primary sources on the history of science in the 20th century have proven the effect on contexts namely the social, political, and cultural. Politically, they prove the uneven growth in government structures as influenced by aspects such as war. Most of the figures interested in governance ended up becoming presidents while others are remembered for their sober inputs into issues influencing the existing social facts and realism in understanding human beings. A key contribution is a publication titled The Process of Government by Arthur Bentley. This 1908 article is instrumental in opposing abstractions for a more observable approach determined by different groups. How each of these groupings interacted pre-established the laws, leaders, and population behaviors and reactions. Other philosophers came up with the reconstruction method in which statistics would be used to enhance the findings made by the observations. Alternatively, there was the quantification of human elements such as the subconscious and rationality for a more concise inference on political behaviors. There are issues with the politicization of science in situations such as the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Burr, 2005, 1). The atomic bombs used as a means to end the pacific war and meet the interests of the American population still has a great impact in modern times due to its ethical concerns. Many people lost their lives even though it is clear that the Japanese wanted to surrender before the bombs were dropped on their land. The primary sources include intercepted communications of the emperor’s intentions (Burr, 2005, 1). Many have been left wondering whether there would have been a different outcome in case the course of action was delayed or stopped altogether. Culturally, some of the scientific developments modified the cultural practices of the communities by viewing their actions as outdated. According to Bud et al. (2018), many people were inclined to artistic presentations as the core exclamation points for various phenomena until mathematical expressions became them the viable way of comprehending concepts (14). Fortunately, the emergence of new developments was akin to the creation of new traditions in which more people were interested in notions such as technology, modern architecture, and engineering. These effects translate into the social sphere in which the primary literature sources present the increased interactions among individuals due to the need to communicate scientific findings. Also, individuals recognize the impact of emerging technologies and strive to ensure that the benefits of existing science outweigh the risks. In conclusion, the primary sources were elaborative on the history of science in the 20th century. Before the era, science was still instrumental in helping human beings understand different facets of their universal existence. Dating back to the domination of the Greek, people have always been inquisitive to know more about the planet and other heavenly bodies. Science in the 20th century is evident in all many fields such as astronomy, biology, chemistry, and information technology. The medical system has seen major developments in the available treatment options while there is an increased variety of food products through genetic modification attempts. However, the primary sources also highlight issues such as the impact of climate change due to the adversity caused by the use of plastics. Also, the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki whose effects are still evident in current times. It is therefore important to ensure that scientific developments are in reasonable measures for the sustainability of populations.   References Broks, P., Gascoigne, T., Leach, J., Lewenstein, B.V., Massarani, L., Riedlinger, M. and Schiele, B., 2020. Communicating Science: A Global Perspective. Bud, R., Greenhalgh, P., James, F. and Shiach, M., 2018. Being modern: the cultural impact of science in the early twentieth century (p. 438). UCL Press. Burr, W., 2005. The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II A Collection of Primary Sources. The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II: A Collection of Primary Sources. Available at: https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/index.htm [Accessed December 8, 2020]. Evans, R.L., 2016. Peterhouse: Peterhouse, Whittle Power Jet Papers. Available at: https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-WHITTLE-00001/1 [Accessed December 8, 2020]. Gibson, R., 2010. Oral history of British science. Sounds. Available at: https://sounds.bl.uk/Oral- history/Science/021M-C1379X0019XX-0005V0 [Accessed December 8, 2020]. HOSLAC, 2011. Teaching the Basic Sciences in Brazil. HOSLAC. Available at: https://mypages.unh.edu/hoslac/book/teaching-basic-sciences-brazil [Accessed December 8, 2020]. Kennedy, J.F., 1963. We choose to go to the Moon. Speech presented at Address at Rice University on the Nation's Space Effort in Rice University, Houston (1962, September 12). Navis, A.R., 2007. Joseph Needham (1900-1995). Embryo Project Encyclopedia. Needham, J., 1944. Joseph Needham: NW - Northwest journey. Cambridge Digital Library. Available at: https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PH-NRI-00002-00010-00001-00001-00002 [Accessed December 8, 2020].