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Role of case law in Common Law family Introduction. English and America are exemplary to common law legal systems. In both the two aforementioned systems, precedents (or case law, judge-made law) play a paramount role in the judicial proceedings. In this essay, the author will give readers a brief content on the definition and the role of precedents, as well as the application of precedents in reality. Contents. Case law – theoretical issues. The term “case law” (or precedent, judge-made law) comes into existence along with the being of Common Law family, thus, it is obvious that, in order to understand precedent in its intrinsic way, it is necessary to root its origin from the Common Law family (or Common Law tradition). Common law evolved in England since around the 11th century and was later adopted in the US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and other countries of the British Commonwealth. The paramount distinction between civil law and common law system is that, whereas civil law system is a codified system, the common law basis are mainly case law, or judge-made law. “Case law” is an ambiguous expression. It can refer to the hundreds of examples of detailed application of the law to particular cases that a legal system produces every day: decisions that have no significance except in the case in which they are made, for researchers who are interested to find out whether laws are applied in practice as they ought to be in theory, and for people (such as textbook writers) who look for practical illustrations of the theoretical statements that they make. Or it can refer to the possibility that, in certain circumstances, the higher courts of a legal system may, in making decisions in individual cases, actually create law, or authoritatively declare what the law is, in such a way as to compel other courts to reach the same conclusion on a similar issue. Or it can refer to something in between these two extremes: the fact that a judge is likely to follow a decision by another judge on a similar issue if the other judge commands respect and the first judge knows about his or her decision. In general, the author agree with the notion given in Blacks Law Dictionary: “Precedent is the making of law by a court in recognizing and apply new rules while administering justice and a decided case that furnishes a basic for determining later cases involving similar facts or issues”. From that perspective, it is a conclusion of two main characteristics of case law. First of all, it is created by the judges during the trial proceedings, thus, it has another name as judge-made law. Secondly, the novelty is of the utmost importance when it comes to the establishment of precedents. Normally, the judge have to take into consideration the question of fact and question of law when dealing with a case. Only in the case when the question of law is novel and the command of a new ruling is necessary do the judge take into account the creation of a new case law to resolve the situation. Case law – an indispensable part of Common Law Family. Precedents play a very significant role in both common law and continental legal systems. In the common law legal system, where precedents can be formally binding on future cases, it is the principle of stare decisis that take control over the judicial decisions in general. Each judge, when deciding a matter before him or her, selects the prior cases on which to rely; no external authority designates precedents. Under stare decisis, every case has the potential of being a precedent in some sense. One part of a decision may have persuasive or even binding authority even if a different part of the decision has been discredited or overturned. Yet only the holding or ratio decidendi of a case can be binding; any remarks unnecessary to the result are non-binding dicta. A prior case must meet two requirements to be considered binding precedent. First, as compared with the present matter before the judge, the prior case must address the same legal questions as applied to similar facts. The higher the degree of factual similarity, the more weight the judge gives the prior case when deciding the present matter. The degree of similarity of a prior case is therefore often a point of contention between parties to a litigation. Litigants compare and contrast prior cases with their own in briefs submitted to the court. The judge reviews and weighs these arguments but also may conduct his own research into, and analysis of, prior cases. The second requirement for a case to be considered binding precedent is that it must have been decided by the same court or a superior court within the hierarchy to which the court considering the case belongs. For example, The American federal court system has three tiers: the district courts, the courts of appeals (divided into “circuits” with distinct geographic boundaries), and the U.S. Supreme Court. Each state also has a multi-tiered court system and, if certain jurisdictional requirements are met, the U.S. Supreme Court may review the decisions of the highest court in each state. Each district court thus follows precedents handed down by the Supreme Court and by the court of appeals in the circuit encompassing the district court. Each court of appeals follows its own precedents and precedents handed down by the Supreme Court, but it need not adhere to decisions of courts of appeals in other circuits. A court may consider decisions by other, non-superior courts to be persuasive precedent, however, and follow them if they are well-reasoned and if there is no binding precedent that conflicts. The doctrine of stare decisis (or, in another word, the application of precedents) confers many benefits on the common law judicial system. At its core, the doctrine protects and respects “the legitimate expectations of those who live under the law.” Stare decisis promotes stability, “represents an element of continuity in law, and is rooted in the psychological need to satisfy reasonable expectations.” Reasonable expectations are particularly compelling in the commercial context, where “contracts or title to property may be premised on a rule established by case law” and a shift in the law could “undermine vested contract and property rights” or undermine related rules upon which people have come to rely. By safeguarding reliance interests, precedents furthers “a system of justice based on fairness to the individual.” Since it is bound by the pervious case, and thus same decision will be made and equal punishment will be punished for those who loss the case bases on the past cases. Example like Balfour case and Merrit case, where the decision made in Merrit case is bound to the Balfour case. It can be used by lawyers as a reference to create certainty which allow them to advice their client for the probability of winning and losing a case by forecasting the predictable result of the case based on the binding result of the previous case. The predictable result and probability of losing a case allow the client to settle it with privately with peace. If the probability of winning a case is higher, it satisfy the client with higher confident. Example for Balfour case and Merrit case, since there are similar case occurred in the past, the lawyer can actually based on the previous case advice Miss Merrit about the percentage of winning the case. Furthermore, using case law as a source of law enables the judgment of the case to be settling in short period because of the binding precedent which is much more efficient. Shorter period of settling a case will reduce the legal cost paid by the client. Example for Balfour case and Merrit case, since there are similar facts between both cases, therefore less time and cost needed for judging that case. Using binding precedent concept, it totally avoid discrimination whereby the The personality of judges will not influence the outcome of dispute in court as the decision made by the judges is bound to follow previous decisions. Whether they are discrimination between the judges towards the plaintiff or defendant, the judges still have to follow the binding decisions. Example for the Merrit case, if the judges know the plaintiff, the decision made will be still bound with the Balfour case. This can provide a fair judgment of case for either defendant or plaintiff. Besides, stare decisis also ensures that legal change moves in an incremental fashion, “facilitating the gradual assimilation of new rules into the overarching legal framework.” A precedent-based system additionally serves an efficiency function: as the late Supreme Court Justice Benjamin Cardozo once wrote, “the labor of judges would be increased almost to the breaking point if every past decision could be reopened in every case, and one could not lay one’s own course of bricks on the secure foundation of the courses laid by others who had gone before him.” Thus, stare decisis “expedites the work of the courts by preventing the constant reconsideration of settled questions.” Lastly, adherence to stare decisis ensures the legitimacy of the judicial process by “permitting society to presume that bedrock principles are founded in the law rather than in the proclivities of individuals.” Practical application of case law in significant Common Law nations. In common law nations, precedents are basic source of law, regardless of the codification, especially in the UK where the case law roots its origin. However, case law plays different role in different nation in the common law Commonwealth. For example, America is the one that is under harsh influence from the English common law, nevertheless, there still be the existence of the codified legislation, significantly the Uniform commercial code. In common law, judges is not only the one who create the precedents but also commit to apply judicial decisions in accordance with the precedents in suitable situations. The stare decisis is not only applied with precedents created by the Supreme court but also other courts that are competent to appellate power, for example, in England, namely the High courts. Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court. Besides, in civil law nations, precedent, although not considered the paramount source of law, still play a significant role in interpreting the ambiguousness of codified legislation and substitute for the errors and outdatedness of the enacted law. Conclusion. In conclusion, the essay is not just an extolment of precedents’ predominance in common law systems but also a glorification on its referencing role in continental countries. However, precedents do expose some defects that need adjusting. Therefore, the combination of precedents (as unwritten law) and codified legislation is the best solution for any nation to perfect its legal system.

In the age of Britain’s great dominance as a world power, many English people chose to live or travel abroad. Tom Hiney, Glyn Williams, and Katie Hickman each have written about the subject. Each author explains what connection these people had with imperialism, as well as their beliefs in it. The authors also give explanations of why persons from Britain chose to live among people who were so different from themselves at times, motivations for doing so, as well as problems and resolutions for them. The experiences of these people differed from one to the other, though in many ways their mindsets were similar. The authors show that in their own respective eras as well as a long term sense, the situations of English people abroad changed. Tom Hiney accomplishes a worthy recount of the evangelical Christians who spread the gospel to the world in his book, On the Missionary Trail. In 1821, at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the London Missionary Society chose Congregationalist minister Daniel Tyerman and philanthropist George Bennet to travel the globe visiting and reporting on distant missions. Along the way, fierce storms, savage pirates, and wild animals, as well as consultations with prominent kings and ordinary countrymen, were only a few of the high points of the journey. The book begins with some background information of early missionaries sent by Pope Gregory, and their unsuccessful journey. Hiney soon begins his exploration of the history of the London Missionary Society, first considered “a laughable enterprise by the establishment and the press” (Hiney, p. 4). The Society was having difficulties supervising its missionaries around the world, which is why they sent Bennet and Tyerman to visit the missions. They were to help the missionaries acquaint themselves with the missions, and “if possible, carry into effect such plans as shall appear to be requisite for the furtherance of the gospel” (Hiney, p. 39). They first went to the South Sea Islands, where they saw constant fighting and Christian beliefs dependent upon the notion of the particular chief. Then in New Zealand they were nearly killed by a native with bad memories of the last white intruders. China is where most of the excitement of the journey was. They attended a luxurious wedding of a daughter of a wealthy Chinese trader, which Hiney describes in great detail. There, they also witnessed a human sacrifice and suttee, and in Tahiti, they observed the first Christian royal ceremony. Their last stop was in Madagascar, where Tyerman died and Bennet escaped the plagued mission house during tribal war. He left the country and returned home in 1829. Neither Tyerman nor Bennet believed that they were imperialists, though modern belief is that there is a thin line between providing people with Western ideas to resist the intentions and ideals of nineteenth century imperialism and preparing natives for submissive participation in their projects. West Indian planters and Boer settlers constantly resisted attempts to evangelize, in some cases burning down mission schools and terrorizing preachers. Hiney points out the early missionaries were only incidentally imperialist, as morality brought them into conflict with their authorities. Because of the missionaries’ faith in improving the world, their motivation continued through what seemed to be constant abhorrence. Such problems as fierce weather, hostile native peoples, as well as fellow countrymen who feared the Christians getting in the way of their capitalist interests, only slowed down their progress. Hiney includes that, except for India, all the countries the missionaries visited in those early years now are successful Christian communities. In the book Prize of All Oceans, Glyn Williams observes Commodore George Anson’s dramatic secret voyage of 1740. Williams gives a very exciting, chronologic narration of the four-year maritime anguish and monetary accomplishment. This book is filled with detailed information about every confrontation of Anson’s and is at times slow. However, the exhilaration of the journey keeps one’s attention until the end. Williams begins the narrative in London in the summer of 1739. The city was anticipating war with Spain, and the author quickly recaps the anti-Spanish feelings as well as the “exaggerated reports of Spanish atrocities against British trading vessels” (Williams, p. 1). Anson was sent on an undisclosed mission to capture Spain’s legendary treasure galleon from South America. The majority of the book is of this voyage, from preliminary planning, to the many hardships and disasters, to finally the success of the mission, though the total cost was high. The men were highly motivated not only by loyalty to their country, but also the idea of the great reward of treasure. Only the flagship, Centurion, out of six completed the voyage, and 1,400 of the 1,900 men who left England never came back, due to shipwreck, starvation, and disease. Williams does not go into much detail of the war with Spain or background information, yet one can assume the war is what made those who knew of the mission approve of the British action of imperialism. Williams does note that the expedition “was bent on war, not exploration,” and includes a detailed depiction not only to the raid on Paita and the galleon battle, but also of the Spanish attempt to stop Anson’s progress (Williams, p. 223). His advance was only slightly slowed by the Spanish; it was weather and disease that significantly beset his progress. The voyage was not the only problem dealt with by Anson. Williams explains that when he returned, he had an unpleasant legal matter of allocating the treasure. Anson and his officers were rewarded amply, but should have received more. The author ends the book with other judicial information and another journey proposed by Anson, but was not accepted by British ministers of state. Katie Hickman’s book, Daughters of Britannia, is quite different than the former two books. It is an account of several centuries of British diplomacy and imperialism viewed through the lives of diplomatic wives, sisters, and daughters. This is an interesting social history of the female side of diplomatic life of travel and abroad. The author observes the experiences of individual women, such as Veronica Atkinson, Harriet Granville, and Isabel Burton to list a few. Atkinson’s family was caught up in the Romanian Revolution of 1989, and Granville found herself devoting most of her time to diplomatic ceremonies because her husband was sent to Paris. As with most of the women, they display the reality behind the glamour. The book begins with the sister to the British consul to Kashgar, Ella Sykes, traveling to an assignment in Chinese Turkistan in 1915. The author gives some background information of how Sykes and her family came to be there and uses her as an example of how rough and unpleasant the lives of these women could be. However, Hickman also points out the joys and wonders of living among alien peoples. She traces the progress of diplomacy throughout the book from its beginning in the Renaissance to modern times. Along the way, she recounts the interesting and resolute lives of the women. Hickman explains that these women have long been known for their madness. The ambassadress to New Zealand, Lady Cumming Bruce, often would arrive at receptions wearing her bedroom slippers. While in Kashgar, Sykes climbed the 12,000 foot Terek Dawan pass wearing a “pith helmet swathed in a gauze veil and…a pair of blue, glass goggles,” (Hickman p. 2). Lady Elgin once dressed in men’s clothing to attend her husband’s meeting with the Sultan. One can assume that much of this madness was reactions to the demands of diplomatic, imperialistic life. Traveling between postings in Persia, Elizabeth McNeil lost three children. Miss Tully lived through the bubonic plague of the eighteenth century by spending thirteen months quarantined inside the Tripoli consulate. Others encountered numerous problems with servants, raising children, and security. Many women were able to adjust to the lifestyle, though others were destined to live distressed lives. Those who found a way to cope had to learn difficult and often secret codes of behavior. Victoria Sackville, for instance, learned to use the complex system of calling cards. Some embassy wives, who were suffering by being forced to entertain frequently, coped with sedatives, while others, such as Mary Sheil, simply learned to enjoy the luxury. Each of these books has its own respective chronicles which differs from one another in various ways, yet quite similar in others. The missionaries differ from the sailors in that they are solely two Christians not intending to imperialize the world, whereas the mariners plan on warfare for capitalistic gain. The diplomats are quite dissimilar in that they merely strive to be glamorous, while poised by the realities of diplomatic life behind the scenes. The situations and mindsets of these people are mostly the same in regards to motivations and what has been accomplished. The missionaries achieved great success through their travels of spreading the gospel, though a modern viewpoint would be more inclined to see it as a negative feat. The sailors obviously accomplished their ultimate goal of the treasure; however, a modern perspective would also be judgmental on that success. Finally, most of the diplomatic women accomplished their particular goal as well. All three of the books are very enjoyable and informative. While there are major differences in each of the accounts, there are similarities in achievements and imperialism. The authors do an excellent job of giving specific details such as those of Anton’s great battle of the galleon or the Chinese reluctance in the Canton River. The situations of the English changed, and the authors do a thorough job of presenting examples of them, as well as several specifics explaining the challenges that were faced in doing so. Hiney, Tom. On the Missionary Trail. Atlantic Monthly Press, 2000. Williams, Glyn. Prize of All Oceans. Viking Books, 2000. Hickman, Katie. Daughters of Britannia. Perennial, 2002.

Introduction The Netherlands is one of the most prosperous economies in the world. The World Bank suggests a 3.5% economic growth in 2022 (Gyamfi et al., 2022). The government systems are well structured to enable remarkable resilience against local and global economic risks. It is not only in the present where they are recording great prowess but also in the past, as recorded by scholar and economist Jan de Vries. This paper discusses the Dutch economic history across the different government systems from the Dutch republic, Batavian Republic, to the Holland Kingdom. Economic History of Netherlands across Different Government Systems The Netherlands economy is the world's first modern economy. Jan de Vries describes the 15th to 17th-century economic progress as advanced and complex in the early 16th century (Thelen, 2019). The Dutch were already shipping goods and services to their neighbouring countries using different forms of energy in the early 16th century. The Netherlands' economic history covers the different governing systems from their pre-colonial systems to their independence. Van Nederveen Meerkerk (2019) implies that history prevailed through the Dutch republic, Batavian Republic, and the Holland Kingdom. All these governing times expressed great dominance and growth in their economy, giving them a competitive advantage over the other European nations. Habsburg Netherlands Economy During the Habsburg Netherlands Economy, most Dutch lands were rural, making agriculture and fishing the only economic forms. The local Dutch people did the fishing and farming on a trim scale level that could only sustain local trading and exchange. According to Roobroeck (2021), the agricultural and fishing activities sustained the Dutch economy throughout the colonial period deep into the 16th century. The limited technology and mechanized farm tools made it difficult for farmers to scale up their production (Roobroeck, 2021). The colonial governments allowed the Dutch people to only exercise fishing and other small-scale farming as they took over the larger shipping practices (DuPlessis, 1986). The harsh colonial rule forced the Dutch to come together to form societies around the different areas with fertile soils and deep water for fishing to sustain their living. Bousard (2018) suggests that forming communities attracted specialization of labour, maximizing their returns. Despite all these collective efforts, the Dutch people could only produce consumable goods that could not generate any income in the trade markets. They managed to get enough for their daily consumption with no surplus for trade to boost their economies. Dutch Republic Economy The seven united provinces forming the Dutch Republic adopted the agricultural practices from the colonial period because of the supportive good soils and weather conditions (DuPlessis, 1986). They expressed a higher dominance in the trading business, giving the Netherlands a competitive advantage in the economic sector in Europe (Bousard, 2018). They implemented mechanized forms of farming and fishing, improving their harbours and fleets. The technological evolution led to great growth in fishing, which helped them scale up their produce, providing a surplus to nearby communities (Van den Heuvel, 2008). Modernized trading gave economic power to the local communities in the mid-16th century generating enough for the ever-growing population in urban centres. Urban centres at this time only sustained the local trade between fishers and farmers, not the international markets. In the 16th century, Dutch agriculture evolved to intensive animal husbandry practices. This development directly impacted the economic development of the local neighbourhoods and the general Netherlands (Van den Heuvel, 2008). The animal products managed to feed the local populations becoming surplus for the neighbouring communities to come and make a trade-off. In the early 17th century, the Netherlands experienced rapid population urbanization, leading to the food crisis in most urban centres (van Nederveen Meerkerk, (2019). The available resources could not support the urban population, so the local communities became urban suppliers of vegetables and fish. Urbanization leads to rapid growth in innovativeness in every economic sector. The innovations attracted multiple forms of the economic process through large-scale industrialization to care for the ever-growing population. Batavian Republic Economy This Dutch throne had accession by Louis I producing a positive influence on the economy after the revolt. Van den Heuvel (2008) claims that independence enabled them to generate enough raw materials for their textile industries in the 18th century. Farm and industrial workers were attracted to the production areas making them crowded and dense. Despite copying clothe- making activities from other European nations, the Flanders and Brabant were the first to initialize an intensive production process (Tieleman, 2021). Many locals provided cheap and affordable labour to continue their economic activities. In the early 18th century, there was a heavy agricultural revolution as the land reclamation process took shape as machines modernized. The large recovered sea land led to high agricultural returns that amounted to 75% of the Dutch economy at the time (Tieleman, 2021). They could now feed their large populations in urban centres and export the surplus through the sea to neighbouring continents. Tieleman (2021) states that in the 18th century, the country experienced political differences between the French Republic and the Dutch throne leading to a rapid economic fall (Van der Burg, 2021). The formulated economic trading policies of the Dutch government contradicted the French Republic leading to a disagreement. Investors felt the environment was no longer safe for their investments, so they relocated to new places (Tieleman, 2021). The de-urbanization and de-industrialization affected the Dutch economy at the beginning of the 19th century. The Kingdom of Holland and the Present Netherland Economy This economic period runs from the 19th to the 21st century, through which the Netherlands has greatly grown. The economic practices have been highly globalized during this period due to the ever-evolving information and technology sectors (Van Riel, 2021). The Dutch shipping industry has gained more global mileage reaching out to the nearest seaport, Asia, Russia, and Africa. These economic practices are far advanced in the 21st century as there are bank transactions and monetary value for goods and services (Gyamfi et al., 2022). The cloth and textile industries are working within the government legislations that make it safer for new investors to come to the Netherlands. Van der Burg (2021) argues that the Netherlands government has good insurance policies that assure the security of investments. Their free market economies are attracting much more global markets giving the country higher competitiveness over the European nations in terms of economic values. They have shown remarkable resilience to global pandemics and economic risks, such as the world financial crisis of 2008 and the Covid 19 pandemic (Thelen, 2019). Furthermore, the Netherlands' economy is highly guided and monitored by its stable government systems (Van Riel, 2021). Peace and stability have attracted more overseas companies into their country, earning them higher revenue. Conclusion Ultimately, the Netherland economy has faced a dynamic growth of success both in the local and global markets during the different evolutionary government systems. This prowess can be attributed to the early interventions to reclaim sea land for their agricultural and industrial revolution. Since the 15th century, they have shown remarkable resilience to economic crises because of their innovativeness and strict legal structure. Therefore, it is interesting to understand the various government systems and their economic progress over the historic Netherland times. References Bousard, T. V. C. (2018). Dealing with Defeat: Dutch Brazil (1624) and English Jamaica (1655) in Newspapers from the Habsburg Netherlands. Early Modern Low Countries, 2(1), 24- 44. DuPlessis, R. S. (1986). A Financial Revolution in the Habsburg Netherlands: Renten and Renteniers in the County of Holland, 1515-1565. Gyamfi, B. A., Bekun, F. V., Balsalobre-Lorente, D., Onifade, S. T., & Ampomah, A. B. (2022). Beyond the environmental Kuznets curve: Do combined impacts of air transport and rail transport matter for environmental sustainability amidst energy use in E7 economies? Environment, Development and Sustainability, 1-19. Roobroeck, R. (2021). Confessional coexistence in the Habsburg Netherlands: the case of the Geuzenhoek (1680-1730). BMGN-The Low Countries Historical Review, 136(4), 3-26. Thelen, K. (2019). Transitions to the knowledge economy in Germany, Sweden, and the Netherlands. Comparative politics, 51(2), 295-315. Tieleman, M. (2021). “No Intrigue Is Spared”: Anglo-American Intelligence Networks in the Eighteenth-Century Dutch Republic. Itinerario, 45(1), 99-123. Van den Heuvel, D. (2008). Guilds and the family economy in urban food markets in the Dutch Republic. Partners in marriage and business? Continuity and change, 23(2), 217-236. Van der Burg, M. (2021). Napoleonic Governance in the Netherlands and Northwest Germany: Conquest, Incorporation, and Integration (p. 165). Springer Nature. Van Nederveen Meerkerk, E. (2019). Women, Work and Colonialism in the Netherlands and Java: Comparisons, Contrasts, and Connections, 1830-1940. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Van Riel, A. (2021). Trials of Convergence: Prices, markets and industrialization in the Netherlands, 1800-1913. Brill.

The economic effects of Brexit in Euro region was the major topic of discussion when the economists declared that the Brexit will drastically bring down the per capita income in the region. Withdrawing members argued that when the contributions are ceased, then it would lead to tax cuts or an increase of spending in the government. This process has led to both long term and short term effects and has led to barriers in trading with the European Union. Brexit led to a very significant change in relationship with the European Union states and also opened the platform of negotiation of trade deals with non EU states. Assumptions were made that the exit from Brexit will lead to a very significant economic_effects_of_Brexit. The migration effect of Brexit was the most felt on the Eastern European member countries whose employees are approximately 1.2 million by the end of 2015. The most dominating groups are Poland, Romania and Lithuania consecutively. After the Brexit, the net annual immigration in the UK fell by approximately 106 000 attributing to the EU citizens especially those from the Western region. The government of Poland encourages emigrant’s workforce to return to Poland but political and regulatory systems prohibits them and they are forced to stay in the UK or migrate to either Berlin or Amsterdam. The increase of employees coming from the East would drastically benefit states such as Germany economically but might lead to a negative effect politically. Residents of British in European Union have suffered the consequence of losing their citizenship rights but are unaffected due to withdrawal agreements. Evidence provided by British lobby group that represents British residents in EU to the House of Commons as many of them had to implement systems that document the future rights of the British citizens have no clue about their future obligations and rights. The EU citizens were launched for registration system and more than 3.3 million people were given resettled and settled status to remain in the country after the Brexit process. The referendum result showed it had pushed the UK inflammation by a whole 1.7% in the year 2017. This led to an annual cost of 404 Euros in an average British household. The estimated economic cost voted by Brexit was 2% of Gross Domestic Product. In December 2017, during the financial times analysis, the referendum by Brexit results had a reduction in the national British income by a whole 0.6% and 1.3% Gross Domestic Product. Economists estimated that the uncertainty surrounding Brexit had a reduction in investment of businesses by approximately 6% of points and this led to reduction in employment by 1.5% points. Brexit led to uncertainty about the UK’s trade policy in the future which reduced international trade in Britain from June 2016. European firms faced a reduction in new investments in the UK and the British firms increased substantially offshoring to the EU after Brexit. The Bank of England and other banks in EU after a short term macroeconomic forecast were too pessimistic of what would happen after the Brexit process. It was assumed that the results from the referendum results would lead to very great uncertainty in the markets and also lead to a reduction in consumer confidence than before. The macroeconomic effects are seen to be unreliable because academic economist are not concerned about it except for banks. There is a comparison of short term economic forecasts to that of weather forecasts in that the long term economic forecasts are akin to forecasts in climate because of the methodologies used in long term forecasts are robust and well established. Leaving the European Union will greatly have an effect of the British economy in the medium and long term basis. There was an agreement among the economists that the survey showed a drastic reduction in the UK’s real per capita income. In the year 2017 and 2019 led to GDP loss of about 1.2% to 4.5% in the UK and also a cost of between 1-10% in the per capita income level of UK. There is a difference in whether the UK decides to a hard or soft Brexit. There was leakage of Brexit analysis in January 2018 by the UK government and it showed no growth in the economic status by 2-8% in the 15 years after the Brexit and this also depends on the leave scenario. Economist argued that being a member of EU had a very strong positive effect on trade and this would make the UK to be worse if it exited the EU. Economists who are considered under a hard Brexit and hence reverts to World Trade Organization rules, a third of exports from the UK to the EU would be absolutely free, a quarter would face very high trade barriers and also face significant exports risk of tariffs in the 1-10% range. There is a study that examined the economic impact of Brexit which led to reduction of migration and this led to a negative impact on UK GDP per capita and also reported a positive impact on low skill service sector wages. The changes are so important as it is very unclear of how foreign investment and trade changes would interact with the immigration sector. The divorce bill also played a major role in the outcome of Brexit because of its fiscal impacts. Theresa May that the finances took the first place as of key importance that surrounds Brexit and thus followed by laws and borders. The Divorce bill is described as a financial obligation that the UK are supposed to pay as their liability in the European Union. For example it is the inclusion of the unpaid contributions to the European Union multiyear finances. An estimation has showed that at least 39 billion Euros would be increased by the year 2022 but there is no figure for the bill that is currently set. After the Brexit referendum, there was shifting of company assets, businesses, offices and British operations and the Europe continent. Banks had made more than one trillion dollars transfer out of Europe whereas insurance and asset management companied had made a total of 130 billion dollars after Brexit. 239 of these moves were confirmed to be related to Brexit which included businesses and staff. The highest number was to Dublin and then followed by Luxembourg, Frankfurt, Paris and lastly by Amsterdam. The withdrawing states that not contributing to the EU would lead to tax cuts and the government spending would increase. The treasury figures reported that the UK gross national contribution had increased to 18.8 billion and that is about 1% of the GDP. The UK spending habit is not the same as other states as it is reported to be less, there was negotiation for rebate. The EU spending habit was put into account and the estimated contribution of net was about 8 billion Euros for the next five years which when calculated it is about 0.4% of the national income. Reports revealed that forecasts majority on the Brexit impact indicated that the European government would have less money to spend even after withdrawing from the EU. The world pension experts that the long term economic prospects in the European region remain very high and this is due to the attractiveness of the country and foreign direct investment. The UK economy is believed to remain robust if Brexit happens. It’s economic attractiveness will not depreciate and there is no interest in trade war with London as it was reported by the director general of World Pensions Council, Mr M Nicolas FIRZIL who is also the advisory board member of the Infrastructure Facility of the World Bank Global. It is further noted that the UK’s decision to leave the European Union which includes control over trade policy in Britain and its regulation could lead to an outweigh of short term uncertainty observed by the state scores. Foreign firms view the UK as a gateway to other European Union markets and this makes the UK benefited due to its attractiveness as a location for the activity as it is a major FDI recipient. When we consider the per capita basis, Europe is a front runner among the bigger economies with more stock and it’s three times larger than other states. Upon opening of the London Stock Exchange in 24th June 2016, the FTSE dropped from a whole 6338.10 to 5806.13 and that is just after ten minutes of trading. It later recovered to 6091.27 after ninety minutes and again recovered to 6162.97 by the end of the day. It was reported that more than two trillion U.S dollars was lost in equities markets. By around July, the FTSE had increased more than the pre referendum levels and this shot to a ten month high hence recorded the largest single week in index since the year of 2011.The general global financial shift in the currencies was declared risky and the U.S dollar and the Europe’s withdrawal from the European Union would affect the trade relations and the economic state of many states. Forecasts detected a downturn of economy since the referendum was declared inaccurate and there was a strong market performance noted with the Brexit. The economy and business during Brexit was affected significantly. Though on June 2016, George Osborne, the Chancellor of Exchequer reassured the financial markets that the European economy was not facing serious problems. The media reported that that after the Brexit, the business would deteriorate by two thirds hence produce negative results and a depreciation of the sterling and also the FTSE 100. Businesses in the British states reported there would be cuts in the investment sector, freezes in hiring and the redundancies incurred would result with the necessity to cope with Brexit results. The European was declared fundamentally strong, competent and open for business as declared by George Osborne. Phillip Hammond, the successor to George Osborne told the BBC News that the Brexit brought uncertainty to the economy. And that it was very important if signals of reassurance were sent as an encouragement to spenders and investors and also declared no need for emergency budget. The weaker pound was expected to benefit the pharmaceutical, defence firms and aerospace companies. Black Rock announced that Europe would undergo recession in late 2016 or early 2017 as a result of the Brexit and that there would be depreciation in the economic growth for the next five years due to reduction in the investment sector. Ey Item Club based in Europe revealed that the country would suffer severe confidence effects on business and spending. It reduced its economic forecasts for Europe from 2.6% to 0.4% in the year 2017 and 2.4% to 1.4% in the year 2018. Peter Soencer, the group’s chief economic advisor reported that there would be severe long term implications, and Europe only have the option to readjust to a long term reduction in economy size. Richard Buxton, a senior city investor reported a mild recession. International Monetary Fund lowered its economic growth forecast for Europe from 2.2% to 1.3% in 2017. The Bank of England released a report in July 2017that the economic growth forecast for Europe reduced from 2.2% to 1.3%. In July 2016, it was reported that the there was a rise in uncertainty since Brexit. Sharp economic decline was noted. A third of the contacts that did the survey reported a negative impact the year that followed. Three months after economic data turned positive after the referendum, it was noted that the predictions and negative comments did not materialise. Brexit started having an effect on inflammation in December 2016. Europe’s economy is reported to be 2.5% lesser than it would have been if they did not exit the European Union. Mark Carney, the governor of the Bank of England reported to a press conference that the requirements for the capital of the largest banks are reported to be ten times higher before the financial crisis occurred. Stress testing by the bank of England are very severe than what the state was facing. The banks have the flexibility they require to continue lending to the European businesses and homesteads during the difficult times. Institutions are expected to draw the funding appropriately. The Bank of England released funds in lending by reduction of countercyclical of buffers in capital and should be withheld by banks. There is a warning by world economists that Europe’s future will depend on whether the UK will see the need to obtain passporting for the rights of the British state from the European Union. For the banks which will not be able to obtain the passport rights have the option of relocating to Financial Centres within the European Union. John Armour, Law and single market professor declared that a soft Brexit would lower the risk option for British’s industry in finance as compared to other options in Brexit. This would make financial services firms to have to rely passporting rights regulations. The fund management industry, often constitutes of an incommensurate share turnover for Dutch, French, and German and asset managers from other Continental European states. The imbalance caused by asset management companies can lead to Britain having negotiation leverage. International Monetary Funds reported Brexit marked the materialisation and also reported a down side risk to growth of the global. And this led to uncertainty of whether the UK would leave the European Union. The outcome was worse. Christine Lagarde reported that any deal won’t be good and the process by which services, goods and the citizens move around the European Union and UK without problems and restrictions. There was an assumption that the projections were timely in the European Union. Lagarde said that a there would be a crash and disorderly would lead gowth cuts, a depreciating economy and deficit hence leading to a reduction in the European economy. If the impediments are larger of trading in the relationship, the more costly it would be. It was bad for the economy to have uncertainties and if only they were removed it would be better. In July 2016, city of Chengdu, China there was a summit of finance ministers of major economies gave a warning that Europe plan to leave the European Union was drastically adding to the uncertainties in the economy globally and requested that UK should remain in the European Union in order to reduce turmoil. Terrorist acts were on the rise and Brexit was concerned. Philip Hammond said that the state would minimise uncertainty by giving out an explanation in future. Philip Hammond concluded that the uncertainty will come to an end if the deal is signed. And also he hoped that the European Union and UK will make an announcement to some agreement by the end of 2016 and also discuss on how to stage the Brexit. He reiterated that steps would be put into consideration of stimulation of the economy which includes tax cuts and increase on spending and this is without specifics. The UK also planned to increase bilateral trade with the Chinese continent, a report by the BBC. Mark Carney, the chairman of the Financial Stability Board and also governor to the Bank of England wrote a letter in July 2016 to the Minister of Finance that attended the G20 Summit and also to the Central Bank Governors pointing out the global economy problems which had weathered and the economic effects of Brexit. And the steps which were being taken by IFB. The financial system still continued to function well despite the uncertainties and risks encountered which reported an endurance in benefits of the G20 post crisis forms. He put an emphasis and the value of the specific reforms that was to be put into consideration by the Financial Stability Board which on later stage reported a dampened aftershocks on the world crises. The resilience faced that faced the stress demonstrated the benefits of endurance of the G20 Post crisis reforms. The difference in the GDP is contributed by additional non-tariff barriers caused with the EU which caused a differing technical regulations and standards. This analysis a much minimised positive effect on the changes of the GDP to domestic regulatory policy and the new trade agreements including many other countries. The government did not put into consideration is the future domestic policy choices and also did not include trends globally for example technological advancement and demographic trends. In conclusion, since the Brexit, enough time has already passed in order to make some conclusions about the Brexit. The European Union must be able to make a contribution to the generation and stability and also build confidence inside and outside its borders. The presidents of the European Council Commission, with no formal notification from the UK, then that shows that there will be no further negotiations nor exploratory talks. This is very fundamental because since something that appears transcendental must be clearly addressed and in due respect of the Article 50 of the Treaty of the European Union which states that the a state trying to leave must notify the European Council first. 43 years due to incorporation of the European Legislation by the UK legal system, a separate size of production may not sound easy. The European Union and the United Kingdom are very important trade partners. A larger percentage of the British Exports are destined by the Union and the UK provides a a very large trading space for the companies in Britain thus Brexit will significantly destroy companies located in Britain and affecting all aspects of business and economic growth most importantly those that fall under the financial sector which attributes to the importance of London. The agreements that were signed by the European Union indicated that the regulation of trade and investments among its state members will stop to apply to the UK hence affecting its economic state and rate of production. The agreements that were signed by the European Union in regulation of trading and investments relationships between its members of state and other countries and groups. Brexit will be forced to clear impact for UK regarding its strategy in security most particularly its measures which is against the act of terrorism and organization of crime and this will lead to it losing all the adopted measures that relate to Justice and Home Affairs and which must also lead them to leaving Europol. Brexit has led to the UK’s internal Regional cohesion and this resulted in decisively influencing the status as an EU member. REFERENCES. Bloom, Nicholas, Chen, Scarlet, Mizen, Paul (16 November 2018) Rising BrexitUncertainity has reduced investment and employment. Breinlich, Hilger, Leromain, Elsa, Novy, Dennis, Sampson, Thomas (20 November 2017) The consequences of the Brexir vote for UK inlation and living Standards. Chen W., Los B., MacCann P. Ortega Argiles R., Thissen M., Van Oort F., (2017) The continental divide? Economic exposure to brexit in regions and countries on both sides of the tunnel. Crowley, Meredith, Exton, Oliver, Han, Lu (21 January). The impact of Brexituncertainity on UK reports. J. Redwood (14 April 2016) The end of British austerity starts with brexit. Portes, Jonathan, Forte, Giuseppe (1 March 2017) The economic impact of brexit induced reductions in Migration,Oxford Review of economic policy. Page 31-44

Introduction Business analytics entails extensive use of data, quantitative and statistical analysis, predictive and explanatory models, and fact-based administration to develop actions and decisions (Nguyen et al., 2018). Business analytics has emerged in the recent past as a key strategic consideration in the management of modern business organizations. Specifically, business analytics plays a multi-faceted and essential role within a business organization. It offers backing for strategic planning, generates competitive advantage, and produces tactical value. According to Ford and Ungaro (2020), the foundation of business analytics is abstract analytics which is founded on considering data-driven process which generates business insights. Business analytics encompasses both historical and predictive data and hence its objectives is to transform business data into useful information which is helpful to an organization (Heck et al., 2018). This paper explores this concept with specific focus on Burger King, a successful global business enterprise with specific focus on its operations in the UK. Burger King is among the dominant players in UK’s fast-food industry with high market share and reputation. New market entrants who are interested in joining UK’s fast- food market would focus on Burger King as a major source of competition. However, the main source of competition faced by Burger King in UK’s fast-food industry are Wendy’s Burger, KFC, and McDonald’s. Due to the presence of numerous choices and the current low costs associated with switching between the choices, Burger King’s success is an illustration of a well-managed with respect to supplier diversity and maintaining a diverse portfolio of customers and suppliers. Value of Business Analytics Operations management at Burger King entails various strategies aimed at expanding the organization’s status in relation to market leadership in the service restaurant industry. Since Burger King is a major player in the UK’s service industry, it is expected to constantly address various strategic decisions in its operational management (Nguyen et al., 2018). These areas provides the firm with basis considerations during strategic formulation to unify and streamline organizational development. These strategic decisions affect three key areas of business management including customers, suppliers, and forecasting. Customers Burger King’s main focus with respect to its customers is to differentiate its products from existing competitors in the UK (Angrave et al., 2016). For instance, the company’s flame- grilled burgers are significantly unique in the UK market. This strategy provides a major support for its generic competitive strategy. Burger King employ’s two generic strategies of broad differentiation and cost leadership to enhance its completive advantage. The firm’s main competitive strategy is founded on cost leadership. According to Heck et al. (2018), this strategy entails approaches which minimize the price of products which results in lowly priced products. Cost leadership at Burger King is realized through extensive use of historical data and research and development to standardize processes and minimize costs through error prevention and economies of scale. The financial objective of this strategy is to minimize operational costs to ensure the firm’s products are lowly priced. Burger King also utilizes broad differentiation as its strategy for enhancing its competitiveness in the market. This strategy is founded on establishing unique attributes to differentiate an organization from other businesses in the market (Ford and Ungaro, 2020). Burger King’s approach to broad differentiation is founded on grilling of burger patties. In addition, its earlier slogan “Have it Your Way” and recent slogan “Be Your Way” are representations of the firm’s broad differentiation with regard to offerings its customers with broad and flexible options (Black, 2019). Many of Burger King’s restaurants offer Free drinks refills. This is a strategic objective that is founded on a generic competitive strategy of the firm to adopt varied differentiation in retaining its customer base and attracting new customers in markets that are dominated by several competitors. Burger King’s main growth strategy is founded on market penetration and coining a new path to dealing with growing competition in the current century. Specifically, by turning data collected about customer preferences, transactions, and buying patterns into actionable insights, Burger King is able to drive its businesses using the power of data analytics (Nguyen et al., 2018). Suppliers Burger King operates with a global supply chain. Within the UK strategic area, the objective of the organization is to make sure there is a sufficiency of supply at all the time. Therefore, this organization’s supply chain management entails consolidation of all activities of the supply chain activities under the restaurant services. Its materials and supplies are provided via the RSI (Chien & Tsai, 2021). If an individual is asked to identify United States’ leading food export to the United Kingdom, there is a chance that hamburger will be mentioned. However, similar to any commoditized product, the desire to not only stay ahead but also sustain a competitive advantage using the conventional methods such as price discounts, or novel product offerings has been ineffective in inspiring disruptive innovation (Ford and Ungaro, 2020). From a historical context, Burger King has lagged behind McDonald’s with respect to the number of retail locations, reach and total market share which is currently about 5 percent when compared to McDonald’s 19 percent (Heck et al., 2018). With this challenge in mind, the new leadership at Burger King has in the recent past focused on data analytics to inspire its operations, marketing and sales strategy and the outcomes are promising. It is hard to image that Whooper is founded on big data or the decision by Burger King to formulate partnerships with Impossible Burger to deliver meatless Whooper was influenced insights collected from big data. This are highlights of Burger King’s new strategic operations. Forecasting Forecasting is critical since it gives Burger King the capacity to develop essential decisions and formulate a data-driven strategy. Burger King records over 10 million daily sales in its locations in the UK. This provides the company with huge amounts of data that can be tapped and utilized in strategic planning and decision making. From the firm’s supply chain operations to source its requirements, merchandising and maintaining assortment, to the approach used in cooking in all its retail outlets, the quantity and quality of data available at each step of the journey taken by the hamburger can be incalculable (Black, 2019). However, as much as the current level of computation of data is still limited, the value of the data still remains significant to the organization even if a small portion of the data is analyzed. According to Angrave et al. (2016), even google is aware that having infinite computational power does not limit human beings to developing decisions that are backed with data. Burger King was able to leverage its data capabilities as a first food retailer to strengthen customer experiences. This is realized using a highly modernized website, digital experiences at its outlets, and mobile applications (Arthur, 2020). Founded in 2014, the Burger King App offers location tracker for its retail outlets, special promotions, and personalized coupons to enhance the boring nature of purchasing a burger, and introduced appealing video content to amuse the customers. Furthermore, Burger King skillfully requested for location sharing from its customers in the mobile app, and encouraged the app users to offer feedback directly on the mobile platform, which gave the firm access to new perspectives of the consumer data. Consequently, Burger King’s new scalable mobile application has been effective in enhancing customer experiences by allowing the customers to receive specific and desirable offers and also access a digital wallet, which has been extensively utilized in making purchases and payments. The mobile application also provides the firm’s brand and its franchisees with plush data about consumer buying habits, which is actively used in enhancing customer experiences (Black, 2019). Fig 1: Most popular dining brands in the United Kingdom (UK) as of December 2020           Source: https://www.statista.com/statistics/950444/most-popular-restaurant-brands-in-the- united-kingdom-uk/ Types of data and performance of the sales department Burger King’s approach to operations management is founded on measuring productivity from various angles including at the regional facilities, corporate headquarters, and franchises. The objective is to raise productivity while keeping the corresponding costs at the minimum. One outcome of this data driven style of management was the enhanced adoption of an omnichannel strategy for linking the physical retail locations to the offerings of Burger King’s digital apps. Using the user feedback, Burger King’s expansion of self-service kiosks in various locations in the UK and revamp of its digital wallet allowed the firm to develop strategic decisions that have significantly influenced consumer shopping experiences. In general, other than the capture of huge amounts of data, the value that has been generated through these innovations have enhanced customer retention and significantly boosted the consumer journey. With regard to metrics, three months after the introduction of app offerings, Burger King recorded 34 percent growth in redemption offers which spun into foot traffic, and recorded astonishing 85 percent conclusion rate in online surveys that were done through its mobile app (Angrave et al., 2016). Fig 1: Burge King’s Social Media Strategy: A brand case study           Source: https://www.falcon.io/insights-hub/topics/social-media-strategy/burger-kings-social- media-strategy/ The prior narrative demonstrated that Burger King’s consideration of the significance of data in the early years of the second decade of the 21st century. In the recent years, Burger King has extensively highlighted its strategy of integrating more powerful capabilities in its marketing strategy to promote customer engagement. Specifically, the marketing team at Burger King recently launched the ‘Whooper Detour’ campaign. Here customers were expected to download the firm’s upgraded app and be within 600 feet from McDonald’s outlets to trigger the offer. Leveraging the immense features of google map, the app was able to navigate the user away from McDonald’s and lead them to the nearest Burger King to collect their food within an hour after placing an order via the app. This investment was successful as it resulted in over one million downloads of the app which made the app to be recognized among most downloaded in Apples App Store for some time (Arthur, 2020). Furthermore, Burger King recently introduced a funny commercials series on its YouTube channel that was driven by algorithms with enchanting voice-overs (Chien & Tsai, 2021). In an attempt to depict limitations of artificial intelligence applications, the ads promoted a chicken sand which that tasted like bird and on various occasions mispronounced its name as ‘Burglar King’, and even ridiculed its own slogan. While these commercials were successful in promoting viewership on the firm’s YouTube channel, the effects of the marketing strategy are still being investigated. As much as the platform was sufficiently funny and captivating, researchers are still questioning whether Burger King will increase on its adoption of complex data analytics to drive its strategy (Chien & Tsai, 2021) Conclusions and Recommendations McDonald’s ferocious strategic response to Burger King’s marking campaign should make the firm to review its limited use of existing AI technologies. Recently, McDonalds announced an acquisition of Dynamic Yield at a cost of $300 million. Dynamic Yield is an Israeli startup which offers retailers access to algorithmically driven decision logic technology (Chien & Tsai, 2021). With regard to applications, McDonalds has introduced several dynamic display ads that are founded on machine-learning algorithms that great customers by their first names and offer them menu products on the basis of their historical visits, weather patterns, and flavor preferences. Through this in-depth application, this technology would put McDonalds at par with Amazon’s recommendation engine through jolting the consumers about what was bought by other customers, thus enhancing the costs associated with moving to a competitor brand. Compared to Burger King’s customer growth of 0.8 percent and low profits, McDonalds was able to collect around $6 billion in the year 2018 and had a cash flow of 4.2 billion dollars. This implies that McDonalds is able to sustain its focus on the sumo strategy, while Burger King is currently focused on sustaining its existing strategic position and possibly utilizing a judo strategy through intensive investments in cross-brand campaigns, and accruing internal resources from the 3G Group, a private equity group with controlling interests in major global brands including Tim Horton’s, Burger King, and Popeye. Consequently, integrating the prospects of comprehending the competitive advantage enjoyed by Amazon and a financial outlook that is healthy, McDonald’s penetration into the data analytics scope presents a significant threat to Burger King operations in the UK. While data analytics was comparable to raising awareness on YouTube and Facebook, and launching new mobile applications, the future of AI infrastructure depicts a picture that needs to be seriously taken when a firm is considering establishing and sustaining a competitive advantage in the market. References Angrave, D., Charlwood, A., Kirkpatrick, I., Lawrence, M., & Stuart, M. (2016). HR and analytics: why HR is set to fail the big data challenge. Human Resource Management Journal, 26(1), 1-11. Arthur, A. (2020). Linkages, Networks, and Interactions: Exploring the Context for Risk Decision Making in Construction Supply Chains. Successful Construction Supply Chain Management: Concepts and Case Studies, 143-165. Black, K. (2019). Business statistics: for contemporary decision making. John Wiley & Sons. Chien, S. Y., & Tsai, C. H. (2021). Entrepreneurial orientation, learning, and store performance of restaurant: The role of knowledge-based dynamic capabilities. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 46, 384-392. Erickson, S., & Rothberg, H. N. (2019). Toward a deeper understanding of competitive knowledge assets. Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management, 17(1), pp79-88. Ford, R. C., & Ungaro, R. (2020). Seven key steps for rapidly scaling up multi-unit operations. Business Horizons, 63(3), 265-274. Heck, M., Pilcher, J., Ray, K., & Brito, E. (2018). When eating becomes business. Revista de Administração de Empresas, 58(3), 217-222. Nguyen, Q., Nisar, T. M., Knox, D., & Prabhakar, G. P. (2018). Understanding customer satisfaction in the UK quick service restaurant industry. British Food Journal.

The Role of English Literary Texts in Language Classrooms 1.0 ABSTRACT Literary texts are used within the English classroom to offer learners with the prerequisite space for the learners to justify, comment, and mirror themselves. The use of literary texts plays an integral role in coaching foreign learners the English language. It helps enhance the learner’s communication competence, their motivation as well as raising their cultural awareness. Previous research undertaken on the subject has indicated the potential benefits of using literary texts within the EFL classrooms since it helps boost the learner's language skills, the extension of their linguistic knowledge, and the promotion of authentic materials. The present research paper discusses the relevance of including English literature as a language teaching tool in the EFL university classroom. More specifically, the research article examines the reason behind the incorporation of literary texts in the Foreign English classroom. Besides, the paper also explains how literary texts are used in the enhancement of language skills. The article also focuses on showing how research enriches the learning experience of EFL learners. 2.0 Introduction Every teacher requires due diligence and advanced teaching techniques to meet the objectives set to be achieved by the students at the end of the course. A teacher is supposed to use excellent teaching skills and tools in the performance of this vital activity of teaching to remain relevant and drive points home (Tasneen 2010). There are different teaching tools used by teachers in teaching various classes based on the type of course undertaken by the students. Some courses need practical demonstrations; others may require experimental performance, research work, attachment involvement, field visits, among many other teaching tools based on the area of the course. Literature, as a course, is no different. As a body of artistic writing, it requires tools to ensure it is well taught in class. In English classes, the books should be in line with writers' interests and ideas about a particular subject in question. The literature texts as a teaching tool in the English classroom play a vital role in ensuring the language is well learned and absorbed by students. In the course of learning English using the literary texts, there are many benefits derived from the process, which assures the students' diverse growth in different dimensions and fields (Van  2009). The present research paper discusses the relevance of including English Literary texts as a language teaching tool in the EFL university classroom. Literature review A brief history of teaching literature Hall (2005) indicates that the University College of London was the first institution of higher learning to introduce a department of English literature in the year 1828. Other departments were also founded in 1849 and 1878 by Oxford and Cambridge universities, respectively. In the twentieth century, literary devices have played an enormous purpose in the study of language. In the early century, it was an aesthetic tool used applied by the few. With its popularity, it then became a literacy tool for many. Besides, it was also used as a vocational and moral uplift and for ideational content in much of the 1950s. The 1960s and 80s saw virtually no substantial research undertaken on the effectiveness of literature. This occurred since the Functional-Notional method did not make the use of literary devices because of its lack. At the same time, other structural approaches downgraded the use of literature (Llach 2007. Other scholars such as Topping (1968) wanted to exclude the use of research as it failed to enhance linguistic proficiency amongst Foreign English learners. The beginning of the twentieth century had seen an excellent relationship between language and literature. Scholars in the 1980s, however, decided to focus on teaching English language skills through literary texts that would assist the learners in negotiating, interacting, expressing while also providing personal interpretations. Literature was reintroduced with the introduction of communicative language teaching approach since literary texts off er learners with cultural, real, and pleasurable materials to use. Literary texts Literary texts are imaginative texts which are constructed, such as to reflect the experiences of humans to entertain and arouse the emotions, thoughts, and feelings of readers. According to Sugianto et al. (2016), there are three types of literary texts, which include poetry, narratives, and drama. Narratives are texts which tell stories of written and spoken language. Myths, legends, folklore, fables, science fiction, novels, and short stories are some kind of narrative texts. Depending on their genres, the books can have detailed purposes. For instance, myths are used to explain the natural phenomena in which legends pass cultural beliefs or traditions. Narrative texts provide lessons while also engaging readers and their feelings in the story. Also, narrative texts assume a generic structure that has a beginning, middle, and end. The beginning introduces the story's setting and the characters. The middle section of the narrative causes a chain of events that will influence the happenings in the story. As for the ending section, a resolution is explained in which the characters find closure to problems explained. Poetic texts are the second type of literary texts. Poetry uses the English language for its aesthetic qualities. Poets write poems to express life's impressions and feelings towards people, events, and experiences (Sugianto et al. 2016). The poet will create the poem by beautifully and rhythmically arranging words in such a way that images are drawn on the reader's or listener's minds. Through these poems evoke sensual and emotional responses. Poetry makes uses of devices such as rhythm, assonance, and alliteration. Dramatic texts are the third kind of literary texts. It is a written or spoken language piece which is constructed to be played in a theatrical performance of a stage. It makes use of visual elements such as body language, facial expressions, sets, and costumes. A dramatic text assumes a generic structure similar to narratives but might also be in the form of a script where various characters dialogue (Tomlinson 2010). The dialogue is played out as a theoretical performance with scripted action that is set in scenes and acts. Within the drama of the narratives, poems, dialogue, epilogue, and monologue can be used within the dialogues. The approaches in teaching English literary texts Literature represents the cultural or traditional expression of a person in society. The definition of research is evolving and changing with time due to approaches by different persons. Many may think that literature is just writing or putting words down on paper. Contrary to this misconception, literature entails artistic work in delivering information to society. The artwork is found in poetry, prose, or drama. In the process of defining essay, some definitions have come up dividing it into two parts which are; Literary fiction literature Genre fiction literature Literary fiction Literary fiction is detailed and involves the author fully in establishing the theme using the characters. The author uses symbols and many other devices in bringing out the ideas common to real human life. He has to act as the protagonist and get into his shoes to portray the intended theme effectively (Gelder, K., 2004). Genre fiction In this literature, there is no much character development. Genre fiction includes mystery, science fiction, romance, thriller, and horror. Literary fiction is mostly read for entertainment escapism and a plot. Works of literature involve the authors writing about ancient civilizations and poetry, giving a close concentration on global societies. Writing can change from one generation to the other due to changes in times and social practices. For instance, Herman Melville's 1851 novel "Moby Dick" was disqualified by reviewers but was initially considered as one of the best at its time (Melville, H.,2012). There are various approaches used to teach literature in EFL classrooms. According to Duppenthaler (1987), the teaching activity should ensure there is increased the motivation of students in participation of the learning process, and enhance interaction between the learners. Teachers must know various approaches and techniques to ensure success in teaching literature. (Whitehead, 1968). Among many, below are the most commonly used approaches in teaching literary texts as discussed; Three Models of Carter and Long Carter and Long (1991) suggested three models of teaching literature that include the cultural model, the language model and the personal growth model. The cultural model targets to provide information regarding authors, history, and cultural trends. The language model on the other hand, targets on the growth of the skills of writing, listening, speaking, and reading (Tayebipour 2009). Personal growth approach aims at motivating the students to growth and development of their creativity, imagination, and critical thinking on the individual level. The Integrated Approach by Savvidou Savvidou (2004), illustrates a six-stage model can be applied to teach texts in EFL classrooms; First stage: Instilling students with the literary knowledge of the content and the theme of the book. Second stage: Students familiarize themselves with the text through reading and listening in class. Third stage: Engaging the students with their responses to literature by speaking or writing. Forth stage: Intensive reading helps boost student's comprehension Fifth stage: Learners are motivated to do further exploration of the literary texts. Sixth stage: This takes the learner o individually understand the text on analyzing the literary devices. Integrated Approach by Divsar and Tahriri There are three models of teaching literature, as argued by Divsar and Tahriri (2009). They focused on three considerations i.e., linguistics, cultural and communication considerations in suggesting the following phases of teaching writing; 1. The Preliminary Phase: 2. The content and cultural Phase: 3. The synthesis phase Writers use literary texts as a tool to captivate the mind of the reader professionally. On the same, the reader can receive the information meant by the writer and understand the writing to a deeper extent. Mostly, the literature devices enhance clarity and enable emphasis in the literature. When students are taken through the books with different literary texts, their mind connects deeply with the writers' writing and characters in the story which leads to the student's improvement of the understanding and use of English language (Alemi, M., 2011). Discussion The benefits of using literature in teaching the English Language in EFL classrooms The use of literary texts has been encouraged and recommended because of the advantages it possesses in assisting foreign language students learn English language skills (Sugianto et al. 2016). It also helps them in improving their language acquisition and awareness. Furthermore, many scholars have recommended the application of literature as a vehicle to motivate learners to learn English. Helps learners in improving their language awareness and acquisition Use of literary texts to help learners listen The use of literary texts enhances listening as it offers a perfect setting in which learners can familiarize themselves with the different varieties of voice qualities and dialects. Literary texts give learners with listening opportunities where they can become engaged emotionally and intellectually. According to Jacob (1990), In an EFL classroom, reading out texts to learners assists and stimulates them to create visual images in their minds. Using literary texts helps the students to develop some awareness regarding the language sound and the rhythm's beauty. It helps the students visualize moods, settings, characters, and situations as they listen. Students listening to read-aloud guides can assist the students in incorporating a heightened involvement with the literary texts. How the use of literary texts helps EFL learners learn to speak According to Khamkhein (2010), speaking is a language skill in which individuals actively produce and use spoken words which are used during communication. In second language learning, speaking is a crucial skill in the mastery of the language. In an English literature class, activities such as question and answer debates, as well as role-play, help the students nurture their speaking skills. Such events also help bring inclusivity in the classroom as learners get motivated to part of the classroom proceedings that include sharing ideas, questions, and presentations (Khamkhein 2010). Since literary texts depend on the language in the creation of a certain effect, the use of literary texts assists learners to attain particular communication goals. How literary texts help learners attain reading skills A wide range of studies has shown how literary texts helps in promoting reading achievement and development (Widdowson 1979). He indicates that literature helps nurture reading skills. The students will read literary texts which will assist them in appreciating and understanding the various multiple levels that include metaphors, phonological patterns, and multiple meaning. How literary texts help learners attain writing skills Literary texts offer students a huge inspiration to write, as many would like to model their writing according to such written works. Literature readers acquire the motivation to imitate the original written content as well as its contents, styles, and themes. Besides, learners also get a chance to review innovative thinking as they interpret and analyze the texts (Stern 2001). Other classroom activities such as exercises and discussion questions also motivate the learners to analyze, criticize, and explain the literary works. The learners will acquire individual styles, themes, organizations, and contents that will assist them in generating original thinking. Literary texts are also filled with idiomatic expressions, beautiful sentences, figurative language, proverbs, and vocabulary (Tomlinson, 2010). Besides, readers of literary texts also gripping grammatical structures, writing styles, and a range of vocabulary that is interwoven. Learners also acquire the motivation to criticize, explore, and ask a question regarding the literary texts. How dramatic literary texts assist English language learners Learners who view dramatic literary texts become active participants who experience some similarity in the use of language. Dramatic texts help learners in nurture speaking skills since real-life dialogue can get recreated (Widdeowgon 1979). Communication skills are utilized in the texts. Learners can use dramatic texts to comprehend their lives through an analysis of specific situations and a deeper linguistics world. Drama assists in language development, enhancement of listening skills, and creative thinking. 3.4.4 Using poetry for English language learning Language learners can make use of poetry as a useful resource. According to Bagherkazemi and Alemi (2010), poetry's main objective is finding a means of involving the language skills of learners creatively and actively. Poetry engages the readers in generating coherent discourse meanings and the interpretation of texts. Also, poetry also offers the value of understanding other cultures. Bagherkazemi  and Alemi (2010) highlighted poetry's five benefits, which include education and learning, linguistics, emotional, esthetic, and cultural. Literary texts used in the English language can also enhance the learner's cultural awareness as the students will have an opportunity to understand and develop insights regarding the culture of individuals across the world. The students get to develop their visualization and imagery abilities while also acquiring new perspectives regarding the ideas found in literary devices. The learners also learn the target language more wholly other than the memorization of rules and words. Besides, the students learn different cultural values, which helps them develop cultural understanding and communication. Literary text devices and significance in teaching English in EFL classroom The student needs to identify where different literature tools have been used by the writer and with what motive they were used. For instance, when a symbol is used in a literature text, the student learns and understands the view of the author about a specific character or occurrence in the story. As the students learn English, through the use of literature with literary tools, learning becomes exciting and enjoyable, making the text clear to the students (Kashavarzi 2012). Below are different literary devices used in literature and their relevance in teaching English in EFL University classroom. Allegory This literary device is used as symbolic representations of characters and events in conveying specific ideas. The parable is a historical story used to send a message to the reader about a real-life situation. When they are used in English classrooms, the students can have a better way of obtaining good moral character as meant by the writer (Bloomfield, M. W., 1972). There are short stories with animal characters e.g., Hare, Tortoise, Lion, Hyena, and Elephant. The writer uses these short stories for readers to have an exposure of morality in society. When allegories are used, English learners are equipped with excellent morals in the course of learning. Alliteration Alliteration is a chain of words with similar soundings of the constant therein. The starting constant sound of the phrase is comparative to each other. Writers use this tool in literature to captivate the mind of the reader (Blake, N. F.,1969). When a writer gives a title like Sense and Sensibility, he can draw the attention of the reader and makes him or her want to know more about the story. In poetry, alliteration is commonly used and plays a significant role in sharpening the English learners based on understanding and creating interest to the student (Austen, J.,2004). Allusion An allusion is an indirect phrase or figure of speech used to refer to a specific person or event which is outside the text in question. For instance, a writer may apply to a person as acting smart like Einstein. This is an allusion to the famous real-life person called Albert Einstein, who was well known as a theoretical physicist (Connolly, J. W., 1982). In English classes, references help the students understand more about the world outside the context. By wanting to know why the writer referred to an event, situation, or character outside the story, the student research and get a better view of the real-life historical field. Anachronism This is when an author uses a thing that belongs to a period in which it did not exist. The word used by the writer is obviously out of time; it existed, but the reader adapts the critical information in the process of internalizing the anachronism. A character may also be appearing in a diff erent time than the actual period of existence or a technology indicated in a time different from when it emerged (De Grazia, M.2010). The role of anachronism in English classrooms is to draw the attention of the learners to the historical existence of certain events, people, or things. It educates the English learner about the history of individual life in society. For instance, Shakespeare uses anachronism when he uses a dollar as the currency in Macbeth (Shakespeare, w. 2001). Anaphora Throughout a piece of writing, a particular phrase or word may be appearing severally in sentences. This is called anaphora. It technically hits the mind of the reader by provoking it due to the repetitive art (Keshavarzi 2012). In the process of reading the repeated phrase or word, the reader thinks about it and internalizes it, creating a better understanding of the reason behind it. In English classrooms, authors use anaphora in poetry and speeches to captivate the mind of the reader and emphasize on a point to him or her about a specific occurrence or character. With the use of this tool in the English class, the learners better understand the intention of the author in a particular context. For example, Martin Luther King's 1963 speech was full of the repeated phrase "I have a Dream ..." at the beginning of every sentence to emphasize what he dreamt about (King 1999). Anastrophe Anastrophe comes ion when the writer reverses the correct standard format of arranging words in a sentence. A sentence is organized in the verb, subject, and then adjective form. But the writer, through the use of anastrophe, may alter this arrangement to an adjective, verb-subject format. For instance, a sentence like, "Are you ready?" It may be written as "Ready, are you?" The tool is used to create interest to the reader and add flavor to the English language by adjusting the commonly known formats of sentences to the learners. In English classrooms, the students are attracted to the tool which interests them while reading. Anthropomorphism This is applied when something non-human is made by the author to behave like a human irrespective of it, not possessing human nature. Animals, places, or objects may be made by the author to take the behavior of a human in terms of response to situations and involvement in human activities. For instance, in children's cartoons, Mickey Mouse can sing, dance, take a shower, cook, ride a bicycle, and go shopping just like a human being. A real mouse cannot perform these duties (Crafton, D., 2012). Through the use of anthropomorphism, the author quickly draws the attention of the audience and drives his meant theme to them with ease. In English learning, students interested in cartoons are easily reached and addressed to using anthropomorphism, where the author drives his point home concerning the aim of the story. Chiasmus This is a figure of speech used in literature where a reversed sentence or phrase follows the sentence or phrase in terms of order and arrangement of words (Tasnen 2010). The use of chiasmus in English classrooms enables the students to get the emphasis set by the writer concerning a particular character, theme, or situation in the story. This tool allows for the English learner to pay keen interest in the writing as meant by the author. For instance, "Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country." By John F. Kennedy (Kennedy, J. F., & Sorensen, T. C., 2007). It is so exciting and draws the attention of the reader, keeping him or her thinking about what the author means. Flashbacks The use of flashbacks is also a fascinating tool in teaching English. Flashbacks are the events or activities that happened in the past as compared to the time of narration or the current time in the context. Authors use flashbacks to shed light on the reader concerning past events or occurrences. The reader can obtain a historical background about a particular event, character, or situation, which helps him or her understand why the circumstances stand as they are currently in the story. The English learners are well exposed to the history of the plots in the story through the use of flashbacks. For example, in Gone Girl, the flashback is well applied, where every chapter is connected to the previous one (VanLeuvan, E.,2016). Juxtaposition This is the art used by the author comparing two objects, activities, or persons that are incredibly different from each other. The two are usually not possessing any similarity at any angle or level. This tool is used in literature to help in giving the reader a clearer picture of a particular character in the story in comparison to another who is different from the one in question. An excellent example of the use of juxtaposition is in the opening format of A Tale of Two Cities. In the opening clause, the author Charles Dickens uses Juxtaposition in contrasting the existence of two different eras. This brings the attention of the reader to read about the various cities and get the outcome experienced by the two (Charles, D. 2017). In English learning, students can easily relate two different existing situations or characters where juxtaposition is applied and quickly get the theme of the author. 3.3.11 Metaphor This is when the author compares one thing to another with the two sharing an item in stock but are different in other aspects. In this tool of literature, the author uses two objects, events, situations, or persons, and compares them. For example, in Romeo and Juliet, Romeo compares Juliet to the sun. These are two different objects but share a typical character of beauty (Hamilton 2000). When metaphors are used in the EFL University classrooms, excellent expression skills are instilled in the learners, which enables them to advance in the language. 4.0 Conclusion The paper discusses how literary texts are used in EFL classroom. It also discusses the benefits of literature in developing the student's language skills. The paper has shown how literary texts can be used to design motivating and stimulating learning. In summary, the use of literary texts in the EFL classroom will (1) assist learners in making use of English for communicative purposes; (2) stimulate the involvement of students emotionally and aesthetically; (3) assist learners to authentic use of language; (4) assist them in genuine input attention, and (5) assist learners become culturally aware. EFL students will get a chance to practice their critical thinking skills as well.   References   Alemi, M. (2011). The use of literary works in an EFL class. Theory and Practice  in Language Studies,  1(2),  177-180 Austen, J. (2004). Sense and sensibility. OUP Oxford. Blake, N. F. (1969). Rhythmical alliteration. Modern Philology, 67(2), 118-124. Bloomfield, M. W. (1972). Allegory as interpretation. New Literary History, 3(2), 301-317. Carter, R., & Michael, N. (2003). Long. M.(1991). Teaching Literature. Harlow: Longman. Celce Murcia, M, 3-9. Charles, D. (2017). A Tale of Two Cities. PHrroJI KJiaccHK. Connolly, J. W. (1982). The Function of Literary Allusion in Nabokov's Despair. Slavic and East European Journal, 302-313. Crafton, D. (2012). Shadow of a Mouse: Performance, Belief, and world-making in animation. Univ of California Press. De Grazia, M. (2010). Anachronism.  In Cultural Reformations. Divsar, H., & Tahriri, A. (2009). Investigating the Effectiveness of an Integrated Approach to Teaching Literature in an EFL Context. Journal of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics,   13(2), 105-116. Duppenthaler, P. (1987). Some criteria for selecting and designing activities for the language classroom. Modern English Teacher, 15(1), 36-37. Fogal, G. G. (2010). EFL literature studies: Student feedback on teaching methodology. Asian EFL Journal, 12(4), 114-129. Gelder, K. (2004). Popular fiction: The logics and practices of a literary field. Routledge. Hamilton, A. (2000). Metaphor in theory and practice: the influence of metaphors on expectations. ACM Journal of Computer Documentation (JCD), 24(4), 237-253. Jacobs, Leland B.  (1990). Listening to literature. Teaching K-8, 20(4), 34-37. Kennedy, J. F., & Sorensen, T. C. (2007). Ask not what your country can do for you. Guardian News & Media. Keshavarzi, A. (2012). Use of literature in teaching English. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 554-559. Khamkhien, A. (2010). Teaching English Speaking and English Speaking Tests in the Thai Context: A Reflection from Thai Perspective. English Language Teaching, 3(1), 184-190. King, M. L. (1999). " I Have a Dream" Speech -project, Gutenberg. Llach, M. P. A. (2017). Teaching language through literature: The waste land in the ESL classroom. ODISEA. Revista de estudios ingleses, (8), 7-17. Maley, A. (1989). Down from the pedestal: Literature as a resource. Literature and the learner: Methodological approaches, 10-23. Melville, H. (2012). Moby dick. EfleCO K-JIU mepamypa u apy2u yM emHocmu, (82). Savvidou, C. (2004). An integrated approach to teaching literature in the EFL classroom. The Internet TESL Journal, 10(12), 1-6 Shakespeare, W. (2001). The tragedy of Macbeth (Vol. 2). Classic Books Company. Sugianto, A., Miftah, M. Z., Erliana, S., & Hidayat, R. (2016). 21st Century English Language Teaching Tasneen, W. (2010). Literary texts in the language classroom: A study of teachers' and students' views at international schools in Bangkok. Asian EFL Journal, 12(4), 173-187. Tayebipour, F. (2009). In Defence of Teaching literature to EFL students in the era of Globalization. In Englishes and literatures-in-English in a globalised world: Proceedings of the 13th international conference on English in Southeast Asia (pp. 213-219). Topping, D. M. (1968). Linguistics or literature: An approach to language. TESOL quarterly, 2(2), 95-100. Van, T. T. M. (2009). The relevance of literary analysis to teaching literature in the EFL Classroom. In English Teaching Forum (Vol. 47, No. 3, p. 2). US Department of State. Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, Office of English Language Programs, SA-5, 2200 C Street NW 4th Floor, Washington, DC 20037. VanLeuvan, E. (2016). Film Genre and David Pincher's Gone Girl. Whitehead, R. J. (1968). Children's literature:  Strategies of teaching. Prentice-Hall. Widdowson, H. G. (2014). Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature. Routledge.

Caribbean History/Studies Prompt 3 The involvement of the British in the slave trade dates back to over 2,000 years ago. This can be seen around 54 BC, where Cicero writes about the British enslaving Julius Caesar. The British acquired slaves to provide labor. Most of these slaves were Negroes, and most of them were acquired during the war, captured by force, or could be sold by traders. In this paper, the focus will be investigating historical forces that challenge slavery in the British Caribbean region and also address the process that paved the way for the emancipation and established social order after the slavery. Slavery experienced several challenges during its time in the European regions. Some of the historical challenges include the following resistance. It is without a doubt that slavery in Europe was contributed to by a significant number of people from the black race. And within Britain, the Negroes who formed the basis of slavery revolted against the British government, and this was evident in every corner that the British practiced this slave trade (Dumas 8). These slaves got support from religious leaders who saw slavery as a barbaric practice against human beings. The religious leaders empowered the slaves to stand up and express their needs to the British government. French revolution also contributed to the resistance of the slaves against the British government. The revolution created awareness among slaves, and they started demanding for equality, and liberty (Dumas 12). An example of the revolt is that which occurred in Jamaica, Demerara, and Barbados, where their leaders stated it clear to the British government that they were not going to allow enslavement anymore. This exerted a lot of pressure and drawbacks to the British process of concurring.   Another historical challenge of slavery in the Caribbean is the change in economic interests. Changes in the economic interests contributed significantly to the abolishment of slavery in Britain. America gaining of independence in 1776 resulted in a decrease of British colonies since America opted to trade with countries like Dutch and French in the West Indies directly. The decrease was experienced in colonies like Barbados and Jamaica (Hayward 14). The British thus needed an increased number of slaves to ensure that labor provided in their territories. The change in economic interest paved the way for the industrial revolution. With the industrial revolution, it was apparent that the British no longer required labor from slaves to produce goods. The industrial revolution was associated with mass production, something that human labor was incapable of doing. Therefore it implied that the British needed to acquire another source of labor apart from slavery. The British government had to rely on machinery to provide labor, and this is the factor that led to the abolishment of slavery.   The other challenge experienced by Britain during slavery is the introduction of the slavery Abolition Act (1883). The act demanded that the British government should abolish slavery in most of its colonies, and this resulted in freeing of about 800,000 African slaves in the Caribbean and South Africa. The change in the system of international commerce implied that the British government should stop depending on the Caribbean slaveholding if it wanted to compete with lager plantation economies like Cuba and Brazil. Therefore the merchants started   pushing for free trade for the British markets (Hayward 87). The slave abolitionists speared headed the introduction of this act. The abolitionist saw slavery as an act of inhuman, and Britain needed to stop using the inhumane human labor. The abolitionist pushed for the implementation of this act, which led to the abandonment of slavery.   The process of emancipation and new social order was stirred by the passing of the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act in 1807 by the British parliament. The campaigners of the act were striving for the abolition of the slave trade within the British territories. The key players in this act were the politicians, religious leaders, and supporters of the Anti-Slavery Society. The movement gave women a voice where they were allowed to form associations like the Women's Anti-Slavery Association (Hayward 112). This association brought social order in the society as women were also seen to be fighting to end the slave trade across Britain and its territory. The anti-slavery association focused on promoting equality among the people of England regardless of one's color, and women were also to be part of it (Black Presence). Through these gender inequalities have been eliminated, both men and women have equal access to opportunities.   With the introduction of the slavery abolition act, almost all the slaves got a voice. After its introduction, some of the slaves became rebellious after they saw that the British government was not complying with the order. For example, over 13,000 slaves from Demerara joined rebellions in 1823 after the British refused to comply with the law (Black Presence). There were mixed feelings as individuals or planters who were pro-slavery continued to push for the practice to continue. The disagreement led to some violence between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery (Dumas 118). However, with all the violence, the anti-slavery emerged victorious because it was supported by Negroes, who wanted equal treatment as the whites. With this act, a social order   was achieved. At the same time, the government off ered to compensate those who had lost labor in their plantations. Work Cited     Black Presence.  "Emancipation."  The National Archives, www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/rights/emancipation.htm#top. Accessed 12 May 2020.   Dumas, Paula E. Proslavery Britain: Fighting  for slavery in an era of abolition. Springer, 2016. Hayward, Jack Ernest Shalom. Out of slavery: Abolition  and after.  Routledge, 2013.

  English colonization has had a vast impact on the world. The Oxford dictionary defines colonization as “the action or process of settling among and establishing control over the indigenous people of an area” (Lexico by Oxford, 2020). This is precisely what the English accomplished in several places. After seeing other European nations, such as Spain and France, attain wealth and political power by colonizing, England decided to send out explorers too. Conquering land was a way that these European nations were becoming wealthier and was a means of gaining political ground. England sent out explorers on many different occasions. The failed attempt of the Roanoke colony put a pause on “English efforts to settle…for nearly two decades” (Norton, 2015). They succeeded once they used their own model, instead of copying their European neighbors. Social pressures were also contributing factors in the English colonizing North America.   Many of the English wished to break away from the Church of England. King Henry VIII requested a divorce from his wife, but the Catholic church refused to grant him one. The King broke away from the Catholic church and created the Church of England. At this time, the Protestant Reformation was already underway in different parts of Europe, such as Germany with Martin Luther and Scotland with John Calvin. The king’s break from the Catholic Church spurred the beginning of the English Reformation. Theological doctrines between Calvinists and the Church of England were so greatly opposed that many Calvinists, such as the Puritans and Separatists, wanted to leave England for fear of being arrested and imprisoned on the grounds of heresy. When the English came to America, they came with the resolve to stay. One of the major ideas that inevitably led to the American Revolution was the Age of Enlightenment and the philosophies behind it. The Age of Enlightenment “which emphasized   science and reason over faith and superstition, strongly influenced the American colonies in the eighteenth century” (Kahn Academy, 2017). Another name for this was the Age of Reason. The great thinkers of the time began to look to science for answers to questions of the natural world and the universe instead of religious teachings. Among some of these thinkers and scientists were Alessandro Volta in Italy, Daniel Fahrenheit in Poland, Isaac Newton in England and Benjamin Franklin in America (Jarus, 2019). Another ideology that brought the colonies closer to the American revolution were the ideas from the Real Whigs, who were writers from Britain. Their faith in the monarchs also began to crumble. More people were open to the idea of cutting ties with English monarch and becoming its own republic. Some events that led to the American Revolution were the Boston Massacre in 1770 and the Boston Tea Party in 1773. Before the Boston Massacre, “British Parliament enacted strict provisions for the collection of revenue duties in the colonies” (Wallenfeldt, 2020). Numerous colonists did not fancy these new requirements and boycotts for such goods were organized. Troops from the British army arrived in Boston in the fall of 1768. This did not help with growing tensions between the British and the colonists. On March 5, 1770, a confrontation between British soldiers and colonists escalated and resulted in the death of five colonists and injury to seven others. The Boson Tea Party is a well know protest that took place in the Boston Harbor on December 16, 1773. In 1767, British Parliament passed the Townshend Acts which required duties, or fees and taxes, for exported goods. Some of these duties were repealed due to the uproar among colonists, except for duty on tea from the East India Company. Three tea ships arrived in the Boston Harbor and when agents attempted to cancel the order and send it back, the merchants refused. On December 16, 1773, “342 chests of tea…were thrown from ships into   Boston Harbor by American patriots disguised as Mohawk Indians” (Wallenfeldt, 2020). The protest was over the tea tax as well as the supposed tea monopoly by the East India Company. The American Revolution was the precursor to the colonies gaining independence from Britain. There were many people affected by changes that occurred as a result. Many prominent groups that were affected were Native Americans, African Americans and women. For the Native Americans, if the colonies won independence, the colonists would continue to take over land. On the other hand, if Great Britain won, the Native Americans would have “a continued British presence that restrained American westward expansion” (ushistory.org, 2020). Great Britain did not win, so expanding to the west by settlers continued. Some Native American land was taken by treaties, but much was taken forcefully. Many colonists tried to “civilize” the indigenous people groups instead of letting them keep their cultural identity. Some tribes were granted reservations to live on and others fled north to Canada. African Americans were also significantly affected by events that followed the American Revolution. “The Revolution transformed slavery from an unspoken assumption to an open question” (Norton, 2015). The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 banned slavery north of the Ohio River boundary. Some states in the north abolished slavery little by little in the following years, but it was not abolished completely. They were not yet considered citizens and did not have the same rights as whites at this time. Many moved to cities, away from rural areas after being freed. Some founded churches, such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church, which would also serve as important cultural centers for their communities. Events that followed the American Revolution also greatly affected women. Months before the Declaration of Independence was completed and signed, Abigail Adams, wrote a letter to her husband, John Adams, requesting that he “Remember the Ladies” (Lange, 2015). Her   husband believed women could still impact society outside of politics. Women began to be educated so they could teach both inside and outside of the home. Some women took to writing as an outlet for their concerns, such as Judith Sargent Murray and Mercy Otis Warren. Similar sentiments were also felt among some women in England, such as Mary Wollstonecraft who wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women which circulated in the states. Her book “set off the first ripples of what would eventually become the worldwide movement for women’s rights” (McCrum, 2017). There would still be a long way to go, but Women’s Rights were starting to head in a better direction.   References   Brooks, R. B. (2020, March 7). Native Americans in the Revolutionary War. Retrieved March 27, 2020, from https://historyofmassachusetts.org/native-americans-revolutionary-war/ Calloway, C. G. (2008, December 4). The American Revolution. Retrieved March 27, 2020, from https://www.nps.gov/revwar/about_the_revolution/american_indians.html Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2019, November 18). Northwest Ordinances. Retrieved March 27, 2020, from https://www.britannica.com/event/Northwest-Ordinances Jarus, O. (2019, September 12). What Was the Enlightenment? Retrieved March 27, 2020, from https://www.livescience.com/55327-the-enlightenment.html Kahn Academy (Ed.). (2017). The Enlightenment Period. Retrieved March 27, 2020, from https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/colonial-america/colonial-north- america/a/the-enlightenment Lange, A. (2015). Rights in the Early Republic. Retrieved March 27, 2020, from http://www.crusadeforthevote.org/early-republic Lexico by Oxford. (2020). Colonization: Definition of Colonization by Lexico. Retrieved March 27, 2020, from https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/colonization McCrum, R. (2017, July 17). 100 best nonfiction books: No 76 – A Vindication of the Rights of Woman by Mary Wollstonecraft (1792). Retrieved March 27, 2020, from https://www.theguardian.com/books/2017/jul/17/100-best-nonfiction-books-vindication-rights- woman-mary-wollstonecraft Norton, M.B. (2015). A people & a nation. Retrieved from https://lrps.wgu.edu/provision/53540310 ushistory.org. (2020). Revolutionary Limits: Native Americans. Retrieved March 27, 2020, from https://www.ushistory.org/us/13f.asp Wallenfeldt, J. (2020, March 4). Boston Massacre. Retrieved March 27, 2020, from https://www.britannica.com/event/Boston-Massacre Wallenfeldt, J. (2020, March 4). Boston Tea Party. Retrieved March 27, 2020, from https://www.britannica.com/event/Boston-Tea-Party