Introduction

Persistent Genital Arousal Disorder (PGAD), as Leiblum and associates first described it as a persistent sexual arousal syndrome, involves an apparent condition where the persistent or frequent sensation of genital “arousal” without any sexual desire or stimulation (Leiblum & Seehuus, 2009). These feelings completely do not remit with orgasm and are by definition intrusive, unwanted and very distressing. Clinically, women with PGAD report that stress worsens the genital symptoms while distraction and relaxation strategies reduce symptoms.

Problem Statement

The anticipation of painful intercourse, painful orgasm, or a headache during and after sexual activity might significantly impend sexual arousal, which in itself reduces the possibility of experiencing orgasm (Waldinger & Schweitzer, 2009). Even though reduced sexual desire is still conceptualized by as many as biological deficits, as an issue of sexual “drive,” incentive- motivation models of sexual desire propose that sexual desire is the consequence rather than the cause if rewarding sexual experiences (Leiblum & Brown, 2007). It is highly unlikely that the prospect of painful sex, whatever its source of nature, will evoke a much sexual desire for both men and women.

Purpose of Research

Despite the extensive research effort in the area of human sexuality within the last decennia, not much has been retrieved about the incidence and prevalence of sexual problems within the population (Van Lankveld et al., 2010). However, there defiantly is a considerable evidence of gender differences, with women reporting an increased amount of occurrences associated with sexual dysfunction than men. In their study of 100 nonclinical couples, Goldmeier et al. (2009) found that 63% of the women and 40% of the men reported specific sexual dysfunctions.

Research Question

• What are the effects of Persistent Genital Arousal Disorder? What is the researcher’s perspective of Persistent Genital Arousal Disorder in both men and women?
• What are the reported specific sexual dysfunctions over the years? Have the reportedcases been treated appropriately?
• Does Persistent Genital Arousal Disorder have equal effects on both men and women?

Review of Literature

A comprehensive study that included a review of a decade of literature that focused on prevalence rates of sexual disorder in both men and women was conducted by Simon and Carey in 2011. According to the comprehensive research, there are several studies that report prevalence rates between 0 to 7% for genital arousal disorder in a community sample (Goldmeier & Leiblum, 2008). According to their study, cases of disorder are on the increase.

A similar study conducted on men classified by DSM-IV-TR as “a perished or recurrent inability to achieve or sustain until completion of sexual activity, an adequate erection” (Korda et al., 2009, p. 545).The examination of this literature reports prevalence rates of sexual dysfunctions. This study indicated that male erectile disorder is among the most common presenting problems within sexuality clinics for males and cite rates ranging from 4.5 to 55 percent. Undeniably, moderation of serve anxiety, depressive and obsessive compulsive disorder of sexual assault will defiantly contribute to the way both men and women experience their PGAD symptoms. Management of these conditions might involve reducing genital symptom and distress (Serretti & Chiesa, 2009).

Even though the ease at which an orgasm can be elicited is no fixed in any real sense, it does seem that women are disturbed along a continuum (Brotto et al., 2010). At one end are women with difficult time having an orgasm by any means at the other are women who can reach orgasm with no genital stimulation or women who are characterized by persistent genital arousal disorder. Studies undertaken by Chivers et al. (2010) suggests that in the latter, brain regions usually originate within an organ. Presumably, in women for those unable to reach orgasm, there is a blockage of proper communication on the pathway that carries information from genital stimulation to the brain

Conclusion

Disorders that relate to genital arousal are multifaceted issues that are only beginning to be understood. Current conceptualization highlight the overlap involved between arousal disorders and of desire, orgasm, and future diagnosis system will probably disintegrate the categories into one.

Leiblum, S. R., & Seehuus, M. (2009). FSFI scores of women with persistent genital arousal disorder compared with published scores of women with female sexual arousal disorder and healthy controls. The journal of sexual medicine, 6(2), 469-473.

Leiblum, S., Seehuus, M., & Brown, C. (2007). ORIGINAL RESEARCH—WOMEN'S

SEXUAL HEALTH: Persistent Genital Arousal: Disordered or Normative Aspect of Female Sexual Response?. The journal of sexual medicine, 4(3), 680-689.

Goldmeier, D., Mears, A., Hiller, J., & Crowley, T. (2009). Persistent genital arousal disorder: a review of the literature and recommendations for management. International journal of STD & AIDS, 20(6), 373-377.

Goldmeier, D., & Leiblum, S. (2008). Interaction of organic and psychological factors in persistent genital arousal disorder in women: a report of six cases.International journal of STD & AIDS, 19(7), 488-490.

Korda, J. B., Pfaus, J. G., & Goldstein, I. (2009). CASE REPORTS: Persistent Genital Arousal Disorder: A Case Report in a Woman with Lifelong PGAD Where Serendipitous Administration of Varenicline Tartrate Resulted in Symptomatic Improvement. The journal of sexual medicine, 6(5), 1479-1486.

Waldinger, M. D., & Schweitzer, D. H. (2009). Persistent genital arousal disorder in 18 Dutch women: Part II—A syndrome clustered with restless legs and overactive bladder. The journal of sexual medicine, 6(2), 482-497.

Serretti, A., & Chiesa, A. (2009). Treatment-emergent sexual dysfunction related to antidepressants: a meta-analysis. Journal of clinical psychopharmacology, 29(3), 259-266.

Van Lankveld, J. J., Granot, M., Weijmar Schultz, W., Binik, Y. M., Wesselmann, U., Pukall, C. F., ... & Achtrari, C. (2010). Women's sexual pain disorders. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 7(1pt2), 615-631.

Chivers, M. L., Seto, M. C., Lalumiere, M. L., Laan, E., & Grimbos, T. (2010). Agreement of self-reported and genital measures of sexual arousal in men and women: A meta- analysis. Archives of sexual behavior, 39(1), 5-56.

For most of the 20th century, the incarnation rate within the United States has remained relatively stable at almost 100 inmates per 100,000 residents. With the daily increase, incarceration rate has incarnated in its current level of up to 500 prison inmates per 100,000 residents substantially. Today, 2.2 million Americans are imprisoned with almost 630, 000 returning from prison to their communities every year. The consequences are thus on the increase and have been documented across different domains. Among the ones imprisoned are disproportionately Black and often undereducated (Pettit & Sykes, 2015), with the less possibility of obtaining quality employment after being released (Peterson, 2015).

Problem Statement

In an article of rising incarceration rate Glaze & Maruschak (2008) argues that the impact that incarceration has on children “may be at least understood and most consequential implication on the increased reliance in America.” Researchers are on the verge to seek the impacts that incarceration has in children, and more questions than ever currently characterize the field. This is a problem of serious consequences since almost 3 percent of the total United Sates child population has their father incarnated (Phillips & Gates, 2011). As a result, there is an increase in the number of incarceration of women, the children number in the incarceration mother has more than doubled in the recent past.

Purpose of Research

Research Question

• Who undergoes incarnation and how many of those incarnated are parents?
• What impacts does incarnation have on children?
• Does incarnating parents have long term effects or short term effects or both to children?

Review of Literature

The issue of increased incarceration in the United States according to most authors start from a more general approach that United States policy has moved from an emphasis based on rehabilitation to an emphasis based on the punishment and retribution and reemergence of the prisons as a central instrument that criminal retribution entail (Eddy et al., 2013). A recent study emphasized on the American Society of Criminal, noting that prison is not “a reserve for brutal offenders who are considered a threat to the safety of the public and to the ones who repeatedly are convicted for wrong felonious doings” (Shlafer et al., 2015, pg.3). A review of rehabilitation program concluded that ‘nothing works,’ and contributes to the push for longer prison sentences, not much community sentences for nonviolent offenders, and an overall shift away with the help of rehabilitative ideal.

Even though the blanket dismissal or rehabilitation programs have obtained the little amount of empirical support associated with substantive reviews, the perception that rehabilitation has failed a coupled with increased criminal rates led to shifts in penalty and sentencing policy that has accompanied enduring impacts on prison population today. The impacts, however, on children is an issue that has to be addressed and as most researchers are on the lookout for possible consequences, it is important to reason logically and provide reasonable answerer to this issue.

References

Glaze, L. E., & Maruschak, L. M. (2008). Parents in prison and their minor children.

Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.

Christian, S. (2009, March). Children of incarcerated parents. In National conference of State legislatures (p. 1).

Eddy, J. M., Cearley, J., Bergen, J., & Stern-Carusone, J. (2013). Children of incarcerated parents. Handbook of youth mentoring, 2.

Shlafer, R. J., Gerrity, E., Ruhland, E., & Wheeler, M. (2015). Children with Incarcerated Parents

Considering Children’s Outcomes in the Context of Complex Family Experiences. Children’s Mental Health eReview. Accessed May.

Peterson, B., Fontaine, J., Kurs, E., & Cramer, L. (2015). Children of Incarcerated Parents Framework Document.

Poehlmann, J., Dallaire, D., Loper, A. B., & Shear, L. D. (2010). Children's contact with their incarcerated parents: research findings and recommendations. American

Psychologist, 65(6), 575.

Schirmer, S., Nellis, A., & Mauer, M. (2009). Incarcerated parents and their children: Trends 1991-2007. Sentencing Project.