The perceived effects of music genres within private golf clubs: a case study for Argentario Golf Resort & Spa

Chapter 2: Literature Review

This chapter intends to develop the theoretical foundation for whole research based on the detailed analysis of past theoretical and empirical studies. The results of those studies will be discussed and analyzed critically and identified insights will be presented in four broader themes.

Music research: The psychophysical effects of music on people

Psychological impact of music on people is recognized by various studies. Researchers people that music has wide-ranging impact on the individuals ranging from psychological and emotional well-being to mental or even physical health (Bradt, Potvin, Kesslick, Shim, Radl, Schriver & Komarnicky-Kocher, 2015). Schafer, Sedlmeier, Stadtler and Huron (2013) conducted a large-scale empirical study to analyze the psychological impact of music on people and identify reasons why people listen to music. Data was collected from 834 respondents and principle component analysis revealed three important dimensions including: an expression of social relations, achieving self-awareness and regulating arousal and mood (Schafer, Sedlmeier, Stadtler & Huron, 2013)

Studies further highlight that music has potential to enhance the social cohesion and group action. It also releases the stress and helps the individuals to rest in a relax mental mode (Hsu, Huang, Nordgren, Rucker & Galinsky, 2015). Music has power to unite the nations through war or national anthem songs. It can help the people control aggression and reduce social stress. However, many proponents oppose the idea that music has potential to act as social cement (Morley, Wray, Tallerman & Gamble, 2006; Bicknell, 2007). The literature review highlights  many  studies  that  discussed  the  impact  of  music genre  on  the  individuals' psychological mechanisms (Bradt et al. 2015; Schafer et 1. 2013; Hsu et al. 2015). Mainly, the researchers discussed the influence of music genre in sports, exercise and related settings and confirmed that music can successfully motivate people during the workout due to positive psychological impact (Clark, Baker & Taylor, 2016).

The commonly observed music genre outcomes during workout are increased number of repetitions and high intensity (Schafer, Sedlmeier, Stadtler & Huron, 2013). Music is found to be mentally and psychologically stimulating while doing diff erent activities, however, its preference relies on the extent to which people are in right frame of mind or mood while doing at the task at hand (Madison, Paulin, & Aasa, 2013). Studies have discussed different types of music genres and their impact on the on the overall mood ranging from country, hip-hop, heavy metal to classic. Moreover, it also varies in content and tempo. Specific music genres can enhance the psychophysical and ergogenic results in different settings. Schubert (2009) argues that the primary function of music listening is producing pleasure and all other functions have secondary importance.

Music has gained significant prominence in the field of exercise and sports settings. Researchers have discussed the influence of music in swimming pools, football stadiums, and gymnasiums. However, different types of music genres differently affect the athletes’ performance (Schafer, Sedlmeier, Stadtler & Huron, 2013; Karageorghis, Hutchinson, Jones, Farmer, Ayhan, Wilson & Bailey, 2013). To understand the psychological impact of music on players, it is important to understand the music composition. Any sort of musical composition is based on the organization of five elements including dynamics, tempo, rhythm, harmony and melody (Terry & Karageorghis, 2006; Pates et al. 2001). Melody is the tune that individuals hum and it shapes the overall mood of individuals. Rhythm distributes the notes and determines the accent style, tempo denotes the music speed and is measured as beat per minute. Whereas, music dynamics refer to the energy that a musician transmits to the audience (Pates & Maynard, 2000).

Among these five elements, the researchers have explored the influence of tempo on flow attainment of athletes. Karageorghis and Terry (2009) contend that tempo and rhythm are two most important composition elements that affect the listeners' physical as well as psychological reaction. While discussing the psychological impact of music in sports settings, Karageorghis & Terry (2009) commented that:

"In training build-ups for major races, I put together a playlist and listen to it during the run in. It helps psych me up and remind me of  times  in  the build-up  when  I've  worked  really hard , or felt  good. With the right music, I do a much harder workout" - (Paula Radcliff e, Marathon world record holder as cited in Karageorghis & Terry, 2009, p.2).

Overall, the discussion suggests that music has a significant physical and psychological influence on the listeners. The findings of psychological studies motivate the management and sports researchers to study its influence in different settings. In next section, researcher will discuss the effect of music in different management settings.

Effects of music in management settings (retail, hotels, restaurants, cinemas, spas etc.)

The review of literature reveals an increasing interest of researchers towards exploring the impact of music in different management settings. Areni and Kirn (1993) conducted an experimental research to analyze the impact of music on the shopping behavior in a local wine store. The ANOVA findings suggested that classical music motivated the people to spend more. The results further suggested that instead of purchasing more items, people tend to purchase expensive shopping items when music resonate to their mood and mental state. A previous study conducted by Macinnis and Park (1991) proposed that the persuasive  power of music enhances significantly when it fits to the persuasive context.

Milliman (1986) conducted an empirical investigation to explore if music listening can generate positive outcomes within restaurants. Researchers highlighted the dearth of empirical literature in this regard and proposed that music listening motivates the customers to eat more when it is according to their mood and expectations. The data was collected from 594 customers from different customers through observation technique. Overall, the findings suggested that it is difficult to associate the increased consumption with only music genre as other environmental factors such as wall decoration, staff behavior and food quality also influence the customers' consumption pattern.

A recent study conducted by Wansink and Van Ittersum (2012) empirically explored the influence if music on consumers in fast food restaurant. Based on the observational results, the study confirmed that music listening has significant impact on the consumers' calorie intake and consumption pattern. The results also confirmed the impact of restaurant lightening on consumers' mood and evaluation of food quality.

Kang, Boger, Back and Madera (2011) explored which environmental factors enhance the customers' experience at spa. The study confirmed that touch and sight has significant influence on the emotional pleasure, whereas, behavioral intentions are directly influenced by the sound. The findings have wide-ranging managerial implications for Spa industry to understand how they can manager and create the sensory environment that could resonate with the psychological and emotional needs of customers.

A recent study conducted by Guetin, Cousin, Touchon and Herisson (2014) proposed that listening to right music genre influences the treatment process and helps the therapists to ensure quick recovery. The findings emphasize the psychological impact of music on listeners and its healing power in spa settings. Researchers contended that music can heal the chronic and acute pains. The experimental research involved 1151 patients that attended 2627 sessions. Based on the longitudinal research, the   study confirmed that listening to music caused significant difference in the level of pain (Guetin et al. 2014).

Researchers contend that background music influences the perceptions of customers and their degree of attention during shopping (Dube & Morin, 2001). Studies also reveal that the right background music plays significant role in information processing and arguments with the sales person. Visual stimuli and music tempo creates an overall environment that may shape the positive shopping experience (Oakes, 2003). Moreover, music primes the products selection as they help customers recall the related product knowledge.  Studies propose that background music that resonates and matches the mood of customers generate feelings of pleasure and increases their stay at store. The increased length of stay is associated with purchase of more products (Dube & Morin, 2001; Gorn, Goldberg & Basu, 1993; Grewal, Baker, Levy & Voss, 2003; Oakes, 2003).

Various studies have explored the influence of music on spending pattern of consumers in different restaurants and propose that different music genres have significant impact on the mood and purchase intentions of customers (Wilson, 2003; Ryu & Han, 2011; Mattila & Wirtz, 2001). For example, Wilson (2003) explored the influence of music on purchase intentions of restaurants. Based on the empirical results, the study proposed that listening to music creates a feeling  of  pleasure,  motivates  the  customers  to increase  their  stay  length  and enhances  their spending pattern. Ryu and Han (2011) agreed and contended that scent and right type of music genre influences the customers' spending pattern in restaurant settings. However, Mattila and Wirtz (2001) highlighted the need to conduct more research for confirming the linkage between music genres, satisfaction and spending pattern of customers.

Overall, the discussion in this section reveals that different music genres have significant impact on the management style of different restaurants and spas. The psychological impact of music on customers' motivation, length of stay and spending patterns motivate the researchers to conduct further exploration in different settings. The underlying research intends to explore the impact of music in sports settings. Next section will describe the role played by music in golf clubs.

Golf & Music

Several researchers have recognized the multidimensional influence of music in different settings (Clark, Baker & Taylor, 2016; Madison, Paulin, & Aasa, 2013; Areni & Kirn, 1993; Wansink & Van Ittersurn, 2012; Kang, Boger, Back & Madera, 2011). Based on the recommendations made by psychologists and other researchers, retail businesses have started using music as a tool to generate value. The results proposed by retail researchers that confirm the linkage between music and motivation and flow attainment have wide-ranging implications in sports settings (Clark, Baker & Taylor, 2016; Madison, Paulin, & Aasa, 2013). Scholars contend that listening to different music genres while playing sports have different influence on the players (Pates, Karageorghis, Fryer & Maynard, 2003; Baker, 2005). In context of golf, studies recognize the importance of attaining flow during the course of game. When golfers are focused, are in flow and having a slowed tempo, they are more likely to score better (McLeod, 2006).

Psychologists regard the golf an interesting sport as golfers spend a considerable time between shots (Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). The time lapse from one shot to another provide opportunities to psychologists and researchers to understand how golfers can attain the most efficient mental state for having high score (Terry & Karageorghis, 2006; Pates et al. 2001). A past research conducted by Catley and Duda (1997) underlined that ability of golfers to control the pre-performance of mental state is highly important. Players that attain flow before hitting the ball are more successful. However, it is important to understand how players can attain this flow and tempo, and to what extent music can assist players in achieving the desirable psychological and mental state. Cohn (1991) stated that when players enjoy the game, they are more likely to attain the flow. Contending on the same note, Pates and Maynard (2000) mentioned that listening to right type of music that resonates with the psychological state of players help them attain the flow and achieve desirable mental state.

Recent reports suggest that golfers prefer to listen music while playing the game. For example, Dumas (2014) shared the survey results that explored the behavior of golf players towards listening to music during playing the game. The findings suggested that 20% of golf players (having age of 18 to 34 years) listen to music during the course of game. Within this age group, 37% used to bring portable music with themselves to maintain the interest in game and slow down the tempo. Only 22% of golfers within age group of 35 to 54 and only 6% of golf players having age more than 55 showed the same behavior. The survey results show that age factor plays important role in determining the impact of music on players' performance and satisfaction.

While relating the rhythm of song with golf game, Michael (2015) commented that:

"Agolf swing is just like a song; it has its intro (the address), the verse (the backswing), the chorus (impact), and the ending (follow through).  Becoming more familiar with the rhythm of a song can help slow down your tempo altogether, whether it be on the course or simply in life"

The author highlighted the importance of slowing down the tempo and based on personal experience, stated that listening to right music genre can slow down the tempo during  golf course, resulting into higher performance (Michael, 2015).

Importance of attaining flow and tempo, and facilitating role of music encourages the researchers to explore impact of music in golf clubs. In next section, the researcher will explain how listening to music affects golf players' performance.

Effects of music in Golf clubs

Review of sports literature highlights many studies that explored the impact of music on performance of athletes (Baghurst et al. 2013; Rucker & Galinsky, 2015; Bicknell, 2007; Wansink & Van Ittersum, 2012; Dube & Morin, 2001). In different sports including golf and swimming, players tend to listen music to motivate themselves and enhance their performance. Study results further highlight that impact of music on athletes' performance depends on the extent to which it resonates with the mental and core-psychological needs of players. Phillips (2013) contends that although many studies have proved the positive impact of different music genres on the performance of sports players, no adequate empirical research has been done to explore the music influence on golf players. The author highlighted the need to conduct more research for exploring how listening to music effects the golf players' ability to hit right ball and derive maximum satisfaction from the game. Music can motivate some golf players to play for longer, or may distract the focus of some golf players resulting into low score.

Baghurst, Tapps, Boolani, Jacobson and Gill (2013) analyzed the influence of music and music genres on golf accuracy. Researchers empirically assessed how listening to music affects the performance of golfers. Study collected the data from 22 participants, out of which 14 were females and 8 were males with an average age of 20.3 and having a minimum eight years; experience of playing golf. The experimental research involved six trials and five music genres including rap/hip-hop, jazz, rock, country and classical. The statistical results revealed that music genres including country, classical, rap and jazz had statistically significant impact on the golfers' performance. However, rock music genre was unable to attain the statistical significance in this regard. Study further highlighted that Jazz music genre was more influential and had more positive impact on golfers than any other music type. Overall, the study highlighted the need to conduct more research and confirm the findings proposed by this research study (Baghurst et al. 2013).

A previous study conducted by Pates, Oliver and Maynard (2001) explored the influence of hypnosis on flow attainment and consequent performance of golfers. The researchers monitored the internal experiences of participating golfers and employed different intervention methods including trigger control procedure, hypnotic regression and hypnotic induction. The findings suggested that performance of five golf players improved significantly in terms of flow and mean score from baseline to intervention. Participants had positive perceptions towards introduced intervention for improving the flow attainment. Intervention was useful to remain focused, confident and relaxed. Results further indicated that enhanced flow improves the control over stroke and reduce anxiety (Pates et al. 2001).

Various theoretical and empirical studies have explored the impact of music in different retail and sports settings (Baghurst et al. 2013; Bradt, Potvin, Kesslick, Shim, Radl, Schriver & Kornarnicky-Kocher, 2015; Schafer, Sedlrneier, Stadtler & Huron, 2013; Hsu, Huang, Nordgren, Rucker & Galinsky, 2015; Morley, Wray, Tallerrnan & Gamble, 2006; Bicknell, 2007; Wansink & Van Ittersurn, 2012; Kang, Boger, Back and Madera, 2011; Guetin, Cousin, Touchon & Herisson, 2014; Dube & Morin, 2001). The multidimensional psychological impact of music needs further exploration in specific sports settings that are under explored by previous researchers. Researchers have emphasized the need to conduct more empirical research for exploring the effects of music on golf players. This research study intends to explore the influence of music of Golf players' performance and satisfaction. The researcher will empirically analyze the perceptions of Golf players' perceptions towards music and its impact on their performance during the course.

In next chapter, researcher will state the methodological decisions and justify the methodological choices to conduct empirical research.

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