Homework answers / question archive / Part 1 oHow important was establishing drug standards to the evolution of pharmacy as a profession? oThe USP is celebrating its bicentennial in 2020

Part 1 oHow important was establishing drug standards to the evolution of pharmacy as a profession? oThe USP is celebrating its bicentennial in 2020

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Part 1

oHow important was establishing drug standards to the evolution of pharmacy as a profession?

oThe USP is celebrating its bicentennial in 2020. How relevant is it today?

oWhat made you curious about this week's content?

oAs the American pharmaceutical industry matured, what has been the primary positive things that have occurred? What have been the most negative things?

oWhat impact has the maturation of the pharmaceutical industry had on health care in the United States?

oAre there parallels between the late 1910s and today (100 + years later)?

Pharmacopeia

Dr. Robert McCarthy PowerPoint

? Evolution of the Pharmacopeia

 

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Also review the following websites:

oAdvancing Quality: https://www.usp.org/about (Links to an external site.)

oTimeline: https://www.usp.org/about/usp-timeline

Industry

Dr. Don Vogt and Dr. Michael Montagne Articles

? Process of Pharmaceutical Development: I available at the following URL: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249017438_The_Process_of_Drug_Development_I_The_Historical_Interplay_of_Political_Economics_Research_and_Regulation (Links to an external site.)

? Process of Pharmaceutical Development: II available at the following URL: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240534302_The_Process_of_Drug_Development_II_The_Historical_Interplay_of_Therapeutics_Clinical_Research_and_Scientific_Education

Dr. Robert McCarthy PowerPoint

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AIHP PowerPoint

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Part 2

Locate additional resources for the content of Week #4. Describe what you found.

How effective were the PowerPoint materials in presenting this information?

Select one pharmacy organization. Trace its history from inception to now. Why is it still important today?

Why is it important for pharmacists to be a member of a professional organization?

Does pharmacy have too many professional organizations? Why or why not?

Dr. Robert McCarthy PowerPoint

 

Teaching History of Pharmacy According to the AIHP Guidelines: E. Growth of the Pharmaceutical Industry Created by: Karen Nagel-Edwards, PhD Midwestern University Chicago College of Pharmacy Reviewed by: Patricia Jusczak, BS Pharm University of Hawai'i at Hilo, The Daniel K. Inouye College of Pharmacy Developed by the Teaching History of Pharmacy Committee of the History of Pharmacy SIG, 2017-18 Picture: Pharmacist at People’s Drug Store No. 5, Washington, DC, c. 1920. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs, LC-USZ62-129891 Italy • Earliest European development of chemical industry – 1294 – Venice – Venetian treacle was an important export – Monasteries got involved in industrial pharmaceutical activity (Florence) • Distilled waters • Cosmetics th 17 and th 18 Century • The first pharmaceutical manufacturing in England began with The Society of the Art and Mystery of the Apothecaries of the City of London – In 1623, the Society established a cooperative of apothecaries who agreed to produce Galenicals and chemicals on a large scale th 17 and th 18 Century • Robert Boyle (father of modern chemistry) and Ambrosius Gotfried Hanckwitz (Godfrey) – Built chemist’s shop with laboratory in London – Godfrey later transformed shop into world’s leading producer of phosphorus – Also prepared several chemicals and Galenicals th 17 and th 18 Century • Robert Boyle (father of modern chemistry) and Ambrosius Gotfried Hanckwitz (Godfrey) – Built chemist’s shop with laboratory in London – Godfrey later transformed shop into world’s leading producer of phosphorus – Also prepared several chemicals and Galenicals th 17 and th 18 Century • Antoine Baume – 1728-1804 – French chemist and pharmacist • • • • One of first in France to manufacture chemicals and Galenicals in large scale Transformed his shop into a manufacturing plant Inventor of a number of technical improvements to laboratory equipment Over 2400 products on his 1775 price list th 17 and th 18 Century • 1698: first drug patent – Epsom salts (magnesium sulfate heptahydrate) Revolutionary War Era • Continental Congress resolution (1775) – Established an Army Hospital – Staff included: • • • • Director-general and chief physician 4 surgeons 1 apothecary 20 mates • Resolution reorganizing the medical department (1777) – Apothecaries roles restricted to pharmaceutical ones Andrew Craigie – 1754-1819 – Appointed Apothecary General of all US military districts during American Revolution • Rank of Lieutenant Colonel • Accompanied physicians to battle • Apothecary job description separate and distinct from physician http://www.buyorkney.com/roots/biographies/img/andrew_craigie_jr.jpg Andrew Craigie – Role as Apothecary General: • Receive, prepare and deliver drugs (and instruments and shop furniture) to the army • Created and supervised large-scale compounding / chemical warehouse, the Elaboratory, to fill and deliver medicine chests to military hospitals and battlefields – Sets precedent for pharmacists to gain professional recognition – After war, became Apothecary General of the US Andrew Craigie 1st Apothecary General (17751783) at the Battle of Bunker Hill Revolutionary War Era • Main concerns with military drug supply – Drug shortages – Market speculations – Uncertain transport Methods of Treatment and Drugs Used During the Revolution • Antiseptic: Mercury (metals and salts) • Pain: Laudanum (a tincture of opium, saffron & Canary wine) • Laxative: Mercurous chloride (calomel), Glauber’s salt (sodium sulfate) • Syphilis: Larger doses of mercurous chloride • Malaria: Jesuits Bark (cinchona contains quinine) • Heart conditions: Digitalis • Bloodletting: Still used from Hippocratic times • Purging: Botanicals, emetics, jalap, ipecac, rhubarb • Amputation – 70% were fatal There were no thermometers, stethoscopes, hypodermic syringes Drugs in the Medicine Chests • • • • • • • • • Calomel Epsom salts Peruvian bark (cinchona) Tartar emetic Opium or Paregoric Elixir Jalap Rhubarb Glauber’s Salts European and Local Herbs Medicine Chest early 1800’s Where did the drugs come from? • Bought drugs from apothecaries – Not enough for the growing military need – British blockade, prices skyrocketed – Marshall Apothecary*, Andrew Craigie’s warehouse • Shipped chests of drugs to various army districts Where did the drugs come from? • Loyalists indifferent to the cause – Patriot pharmacies loyal to the cause faced losing everything • Loyalist Brits and their physicians poisoned supplies left behind as Continental Army moved in to Boston – Mixed in arsenic Where did the drugs come from? • Privateers captures British ships and drugs (best source) – Captured over 1000 ships – prices went higher • Jamaica and Bermuda, brought drugs to Philadelphia – Quality was scanty, other countries were unreliable – Eventually supplied on a regular basis Christopher Marshall and the Marshall Apothecary • 1709-1707 • Irish immigrant; trained in England • Opened apothecary shop in Philadelphia in 1729 – Remained open until 1825 • Highly respected; apprentices wanted to train with him Christopher Marshall and the Marshall Apothecary • Sons Christopher Jr. (1740-1806) and Charles (1744-1825) were partners in the business – Charles became first president of Philadelphia College of Pharmacy; his granddaughter Elizabeth became the first US female pharmacist Christopher Marshall and the Marshall Apothecary • Key role in the American Revolution – Supplied medicine to George Washington’s troops – Manufactured chemicals and medicine chests • Advertised with sign: – “We fill prescriptions according to the wishes of your physician” Marshall Apothecary 1729-1825 Christopher Marshall with sons, Christopher Jr. and Charles Revolutionary War Era • Lititz Pharmacopoeia – – – – Military formulary of 1778 Small booklet Contained simple yet efficacious remedies Illustrates: • Choice of items based on medical knowledge of the time (esp. British knowledge) • Results of the American experience • Difficulties arising from being a nation at war Revolutionary War Era • Lititz Pharmacopoeia – Because of the drug shortage • Permitted official substitution of therapeutically equivalent substances for drugs in uncertain supply Lititz Pharmacopoeia http://www.indiana.edu/~liblilly/etexts/medicine/images/thumbnails/rs141-2-b8_00001.jpg Revolutionary War Era • Coste’s Compendium – Compiled for French medical hospitals in America – Jean-Francois Coste • Chief physician to the French Army serving with the colonists Revolutionary War Era • Importance of Revolution to Pharmacy 1. 8 years of separate but equal status as a profession apart from medicine 2. First known large-scale manufacture of pharmaceuticals on American soil 3. First practical attempt at a uniform formulary as a basis for satisfactory and reliable work Benedict Arnold • c. 1741 – 1801 • General during the American Revolution – First for the American Continental Army – Defected to the British after plot to surrender West Point exposed – Name largely synonymous with treason in the United States Benedict Arnold • But before all that… – 1762: pharmacist and bookseller in New Haven, CT – Began trading in the West Indies • Sister Hannah managed the apothecary in his absence • Became smuggler by default by ignoring the Stamp Act th 19 Century • Industrial Revolution accentuated diminution of the age old paradigm of the apothecary compounding individual prescriptions by hand th 19 Century • Era of alkaloids and phytochemistry – Roots of modern pharmaceutical chemistry – Discovery of alkaloids such as morphine and quinine catalyzed the need for large scale production th 19 Century • Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Sertürner – 1783-1841 – German pharmacist – First to isolate morphine from opium (1804) • Published paper on its isolation, crystallization, crystal structure, and pharmacological properties (in stray dogs, then self-experiments) th 19 Century • 1822: Pierre-Joseph Pelletier opened an industrial plant for quinine manufacturing in France • 1823: Rosengarten & Sons produced and sold quinine in Philadelphia th 19 Century • Joseph Bienaimé Caventou – – – – 1795-1877 French pharmacist and professor Collaborated with Pelletier Pioneer in the use of mild solvents to isolate a number of active ingredients from plants, particularly alkaloids Most Modern Pharmaceutical Companies Have Roots in the 19th Century Pharmaceutical Company Year of Foundation H.E. Merck, Germany 1827 Pfizer 1849 E.R. Squibb & Sons, US 1858 Wyeth, US 1860 Bayer AG, Germany 1863 Burroughs, Wellcome & Company, England 1880 Eli Lily, US 1876 Johnson & Johnson, US 1885 Bristol-Myers, US 1887 Abott Laboratories, US 1888 Merck & Companies, US 1891 F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG, Switzerland 1896 35 th 19 Century • HE Merck – 1827 – Began manufacturing and selling various alkaloids in Germany – Later opened a pharmaceutical plant in the US in 1891 th 19 Century • Friedrich Bayer – 1825-1880 – 1863: Founded Bayer AG in Germany • Began as a dyestuff factory th 19 Century – 1897: Bayer chemists synthesized pure acetyl salicylic acid • Had previously been synthesized in an impure form by French chemist Frédéric Gerhardt (1816-1856) – 1899: filed aspirin trademark worldwide th 19 Century • Thomas Beecham – 1820-1907 – 1842: marketed Beecham’s Pills (laxative) • Contained aloe, ginger and soap with some minor ingredients – 1859: Beecham’s opened first factory for rapid production in Lancashire, England • Mergers → SmithKline Beecham → GlaxoSmithKline Philadelphia: Birthplace of American Pharmaceutical Industry • 1823: Rosengarten & Sons produced and sold quinine in Philadelphia – Also produced morphine salts and other alkaloids • 1826: Samuel Wetherill began manufacturing various chemicals and alkaloids Philadelphia: Birthplace of American Pharmaceutical Industry • 1841: John K. Smith established a pharmaceutical factory with his accountant, Mahlon Kline • 1856: William Warner invented and began manufacturing the sugar-coated pill Philadelphia: Birthplace of American Pharmaceutical Industry • 1860: John (1834–1907) and Frank Wyeth found Wyeth and Brother – 1872: Henry Bowers developed first rotary compressed tablet machine in US – Name changes over time: American Home Products → Wyeth → acquired by Pfizer in 2009 • . Expansion of US Pharmaceutical Industry in the 19th Century • 1849: Pfizer founded in New York City – Charles Pfizer and Charles F. Erhart – First product: palatable form of santonin (antiparasitic) Expansion of US Pharmaceutical Industry in the 19th Century • 1855: Frederick Stearns and Company established in Detroit – Specialized in fluid extracts – Stated listing the names of the ingredients in the preparations before it was required by the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 The Role of War on the Pharmaceutical Industry • Accentuated need for mass production of good-quality pharmaceuticals • 1846-1848: Mexican American War – Resulted in significantly higher casualties off the battlefield • In part caused by import of fake or adulterated drugs • Led to passage of first pharmaceutical regulation, the 1848 Drug Import Law • . Expansion of US Pharmaceutical Industry in the 19th Century • 1858: Squibb founded in Brooklyn, NY by Edward R. Squibb – Enlisted as a navy doctor during the Mexican American War – Frustrated by poor drug quality and spent career working to combat adulteration The Age of Quackery Compounded products you won’t see prescribed today • Blue mass pills – Staple in 1850’s for melancholy – Contained: • Mercury (375 mcg) – Safe daily dose = 21 mcg • • • • Honey Rose water Licorice root Rose petals The Age of Quackery Compounded products you won’t see prescribed today • Blue mass pills – Known to be taken by Abraham Lincoln – Probably explain outbursts of rage and bizarre behavior • Lincoln-Douglas debate, 1858 • Shook Orlando Ficklin and lifted him out of his seat • Realized it was the pills; never took them again Age of Quackery Patent Medicines • Age of quackery – 1880s: • Very popular sales items • Ingredients kept secret until 1906 Federal legislation • Few were actually patented • Claims were often sensational and exaggerated • Sometimes effective, but often dangerous Age of Quackery Patent Medicines • Many of these drugs developed out of the custom of pharmacists producing and marketing their own remedies – Largely vegetable drugs • Contained iron oxide and magnesium sulfate • Mostly laudanum • Liniment for rheumatic pain • Also advertised for: – pneumonia, cancer, diphtheria, earache, toothache, headache and hydrophobia • Contained: – – – – – – – 50-70% alcohol Camphor Ammonia Chloroform Sassafras Cloves Turpentine • Could taken internally or used topically Civilian Pharmacy during the Civil War Period • Most crude drugs were imported – Sold to wholesalers or large drug companies – Finished medicines were distributed to retail pharmacists and physicians for sale to the public Civilian Pharmacy during the Civil War Period • Challenges: – – – – Volatile prices due to speculators Drug adulteration Lack of formal pharmacy education Most crude drug was imported to the Northern states – problem for those living in the Confederacy Military Pharmacy during the Civil War Period • 4 major stages of drug supply during the war, all of which involved pharmacists: 1. Acquisition of materials 2. Inspection and preparation of finished medicines 3. Distribution to depots and hospitals 4. Dispensing to patients Military Pharmacy during the Civil War Period • Pre-war: – US Army bought medicine on the open market – Distributed through a large depot in New York, plus some smaller depots Military Pharmacy during the Civil War Period • During war (in the North): – Expanded to 30 depots • Major centers in New York and Philadelphia • Relied heavily on handful of domestic drug companies for stable inventories and prices – In field, medical purveyors: • Requisitioned medicines • Distributed to units Military Pharmacy during the Civil War Period • During war (in the South): – Acquisition hampered by blockade – Southern drugstore stock was quickly used up – What to do? • • • • Blockade running Smuggling through enemy lines Capture of Union supplies Use of native plants and remedies Military Pharmacy during the Civil War Period • Both sides established laboratories to: – Inspect raw drug material – Prepare finished medicines – Union labs: • Philadelphia, Long Island, Brooklyn, St. Louis – Confederate labs: • Richmond, plus labs in Alabama, Georgia, North and South Carolina, Arkansas, and Texas Battlefield Drugstore http://www.drugstoremuseum.com/images/level_imgs/65498419851.jpg Need for Standards Patent medicines and adulterated drugs during the Civil War contributed greatly to the need for standards Charles Rice • 1841-1901 – Received compounding training in the Navy – Subsequently began work at Bellevue Hospital in NYC • Lived there most of his life – Outspoken about need for compounding and dispensing standards • Creator of modern day pharmacopeia • Also instrumental in creating National Formulary • USP/NF (unified in 1975) is the official compendium of drug standards in the US United States Pharmacopeia • Designed to bring uniformity to the materia medica and pharmacy preparations of the day – First published in 1820 – Initial work (first and second revisions) was done by physicians – USP Convention in 1840 involved pharmacists as well – Physicians lost interest by 1870 United States Pharmacopeia • First Edition – what sort of formulas did it contain? Edward Robinson Squibb • 1819-1900 – Advocate of product standards • Quality more important than lowest price • Ether – steam process of production led to more standardized, efficacious product – Refused to patent process – Published for others to use Edward Robinson Squibb – Went on to form pharmaceutical company in 1858 • Initial lab was destroyed by fire when a lab assistant dropped a bottle of ether • Rebuilt; lab assistant was retained (and promoted!) • Saw tremendous growth – Sold ether with excellent reputation for quality – Civil War increased demand for products Edward Robinson Squibb – Post-war: increased attention on substandard and adulterated medicines – 1876 APhA meeting: led debate on the future of the USP • Need for more frequent revision • Increased discussion of monographs • Correction of errors – 1877 APhA meeting: • Formed Committee on Revision • Charles Rice named as chair Charles Rice • 1841-1901 – Creator of the modern pharmacopeia • 6th Revision was very different from previous editions • Provided a useful tool for pharmacists who were abandoning in-store manufacturing and focusing on quality and standards – Father of the National Formulary United States Pharmacopeia • Changes implemented with Rice at helm: – List of guiding principles - 1880 • Use of English weights and measures (rather than English and Latin) • Parts by weight • Use of a single alphabetic list • Chemical formulas, specific gravities, and atomic weights were to be added • USP VI was to “address the needs of professional practice, mass manufacturing, and developing regulations against drug adulteration” National Formulary • Pharmacists were becoming concerned with rapid growth of manufacturers in the mid-1880s – Didn’t want to merely “count and pour” – Wanted lists of formulas that physicians could prescribe and pharmacists could compound • Rice served as chair of Committee on Unofficial Formulas of the APhA – New York and Brooklyn Formulary was starting point – Eventually resulted in NF – Only involved in first edition The Era of Biologicals • 1866: Parke Davis and Company established in Detroit • Standardized botanical extracts • First to establish its research institute in 1902 The Era of Biologicals • 1876: Eli Lilly & Company established in Indianapolis • Eli Lilly was a Union artillery colonel • Produced standardized botanical extracts • Began commercial manufacture of insulin worldwide in 20th century The Era of Biologicals • 1894: HK Mulford Company established in Philadelphia • Produced anti-toxins • By 1900: produced dozens, including rabies, tetanus, anti-streptococcus • Along with Parke Davis, received first licenses to produce The Era of Biologicals • 1901: 13 children in St. Louis die of tetanus following administration of contaminated diphtheria anti-toxin • Leads to Biologics Control Act of 1902, designed to regulate serums and vaccines War Changes Everything • Prior to World War I (1914-1918), the US pharmaceutical industry relied heavily on German scientific research • Most of the German pharmaceuticals sold in the US were manufactured in American plants under licensing agreements and protected by US patents War Changes Everything • Bayer’s US assets were seized during WWI • 1918: Sterling Products, Inc. acquired Bayer Company Incorporated of New York for $5.5 millions • Sales of Bayer’s aspirin in US was $600 million in 1970 alone • Bayer reacquired rights for aspirin in 1994 for $1 billion War Changes Everything • Merck and Co. was confiscated following WWI • Set up as an independent company in the US • Many US pharmaceutical companies set up their own research at this point The Era of Insulin and Penicillin • 1921: insulin discovered by Frederick Banting and Charles Best (Univ. Toronto) • 1922: Eli Lilly and Univ. Toronto researchers worked together to develop large scale production of insulin • 1923: Lilly begins selling Iletin® (insulin), first commercially available insulin for treatment of diabetes The Era of Insulin and Penicillin • 1928: penicillin discovered by Alexander Fleming • WWII: War Production Board oversees mass production of penicillin by numerous companies: Merck, Pfizer, Abbott, Squibb, Lilly, Parke Davis, Upjohn, Lederle, Reichel Laboratories, and Heyden Chemical • Paradigm shift in capabilities of US pharmaceutical industry The Rise of the Pharmaceutical Industry Post-WWII • US pharmaceutical industry flourished after WWII • Knowledge of large scale penicillin production catalyzed further discovery of antibiotics • • • • • 1945: 1948: 1949: 1950: 1952: Streptomycin (Merck) Chlortetracycline (Lederle) Chloramphenicol (Parke Davis) Oxytetracycline (Pfizer) Erythromycin (Lilly) The Rise of the Pharmaceutical Industry Post-WWII • Other therapeutic areas • Antihistamines (Benadryl, Parke Davis, 1946) • Tranquilizers • Antidepressants • Proton pump inhibitors • Anti-hypertensives • Anti-hyperlipidemics The Era of Block Buster Drugs • 1977: Tagamet (cimetidine) • • • • • Smith, Kline and French Anti-ulcer medication First ever “block buster” drug Earning > $1 billion per year Nobel Prize: Sir James Black The Era of Block Buster Drugs • Competition to develop next “block buster” • 1987: Prozac (fluoxetine) • Eli Lilly • First SSRI • Revolutionized mental health field • 1987: Mevacor (lovastatin) • Merck • First statin (HMG CoA reductase inhibitor) Lipitor®: the best selling drug in the history of pharmaceuticals • 1985: atorvastatin first synthesized • Team led by Bruce Roth at WarnerLambert’s Parke Davis research facility • Roth fought to get drug into trials, were it outperformed simvastatin on safety/efficacy • 1996: Warner-Lambert and Pfizer entered into co-marketing agreement • 2000: Pfizer acquired Warner-Lambert • Flagship drug for years; > US$125 billion in sales over ~14.5 years The Era of Mergers and Acquisitions The Rise of the Generic Drug Industry Drug Price Competition Act of 1984 AKA Hatch-Waxman Act – Amended the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FDCA) and the Patent Act – Established an abbreviated new drug application (ANDA) process requiring only bioequivalence studies • Provided for filing of generic drug applications 60 days later Drug Price Competition Act of 1984 AKA Hatch-Waxman Act – Created modern US generic drug industry • Generic drugs now account for a major portion of the prescriptions in the US • Worldwide sales of generic drugs is > $80 billion The Era of Biologics Biotech Industry • Many biotech companies were founded in late 20th Century that focused on development of biotechnology based medicine • • • • 1976: 1978: 1980: 1981: Genentech Biogen Amgen Immunex The Era of Biologics https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/creation-crisis-consequence-brief-history-early-usindustry- rahman 30 https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/creation-crisis-consequence-brief-history-early-usindustryrahman 31 Teaching History of Pharmacy According to the AIHP Guidelines: F. Pharmacy Associations Created by: James Colbert, PharmD UC San Diego, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences Reviewed by: Susan Miller, BS Pharm, PharmD, BCGP, FASCP Mercer University College of Pharmacy and David M. Baker, BS Pharm, MBA, JD Western New England University College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences Developed by the Teaching History of Pharmacy Committee of the History of Pharmacy SIG, 2017-18 Picture: Pharmacist at People’s Drug Store No. 5, Washington, DC, c. 1920. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs, LC-USZ62-129891 Development of Pharmacy Associations in Italy - The Guilds • Ancient Roman times: seplasiarii – association (guild) for social and welfare purposes, and to regulate conditions of trade. • During Middle Ages, Italian guilds not only regulated themselves but also were political bodies with legal authority • Late 12th Century • Physicians, pharmacists, and drug wholesalers were in the same guild; pharmacy was one of the 7 major arts - held in high esteem. Tasks of 12th-15th Century Italian Pharmacy Guild • 1. Care of poor and/or sick members. • 2. Introduction and job location of all who passed entrance exams. • 3. Regulation of distance bet. pharmacies. • 4. Regulation of remedy prices. • 5. Collection of taxes. • 6. Supervision of remedy producers and retailers. Evolution of British Pharmacy Associations • Under King James I: • 1607 - Apothecaries part of Grocers Company • 12/6/1617 - established Society of Apothecaries • 1632 – Society of Apothecaries built Guild Hall • 1815 - Apothecaries Act - grouped physicians, surgeons and apothecaries together, separate from druggists and chemists, who only buy, compound and dispense drugs. • 1841 - Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain formed for druggists and chemists. Objectives: • • • • 1. Advancement of pharmacy and chemistry 2. Promotion of uniform education for druggists and chemists 3. Protection of those who are druggists or chemists 4. Relief of needy member, and widows and dependents US Pharmacy Associations – the Beginning – the Philadelphia College of Apothecaries • Type of Association: Local • Where: Philadelphia, PA • Why: • Location of oldest American school of medicine and most educated physicians • J. Redman Coxe (March 1820), with University of Pennsylvania support, proposed a “Master of Pharmacy” degree/designation conferred by the medical school – received 16 druggists’ signatures • U of P did confer 16 honorary Master of Pharmacy degrees, but no one took a single pharmacy course at the U of P US Pharmacy Associations – the Beginning – the Philadelphia College of Apothecaries • Reaction: • Meetings of prominent Philadelphia apothecaries – first in February 1821 • On March 13, 1821 formed the Philadelphia College of Apothecaries in Carpenter’s Hall • In 1822, changed name to Philadelphia College of Pharmacy • Origin of name: College of Apothecaries: • “College” from “Philadelphia College of Physicians” and English “Royal College of Physicians” • “Apothecary,” then “Pharmacy” from: • Apothecaries becoming physicians • French and German use of pharmacist and pharmacy • Was a combination of a school, an association, and a publisher US Pharmacy Associations – State Organizations • 1867 – first – Maine Pharmaceutical Association – faltered and dormant till 1890 • Often formed in response to medicine’s call for pharmacy legislation & regulation • Often business-oriented; separate from schools forming; most practitioners from apprenticeship • Mid-1900s: became more professional; integrated with national/local associations “It is my firm conviction that American pharmacy will not come into its own until we have a majority of our pharmacists actively supporting their national professional organization.” Donald E. Francke 1910-1978 US Pharmacy Associations – National Organizations • 1850s National Issue: adulterated drugs • Response: • 1851: Meeting called by NYCP (PCP, MACP, MDCP and CCP) – PCP, NYCP and MACP attended – PCP (Procter) proposed meeting to form national association • October 6-8, 1852: Formed American Pharmaceutical Association – Daniel B. Smith, president and William Procter, Jr., secretary. • Created Constitution and Code of Ethics American Pharmacists Association (APhA) • • • • • • • Formed in 1852 as the American Pharmaceutical Association Oldest and largest organization in pharmacy Headquartered in Washington D.C. APhA is the organization that the U.S. congress expects to speak for pharmacy Involved in setting policy and standards of practice for all pharmacy settings Has more than 62,000 members APhA Vision inspires, innovates, and creates opportunities for members and pharmacists worldwide to optimize medication use and health for all • APhA Mission as the voice of pharmacy, leads the profession and equips members for their role as the medication expert in team-based, patient-centered care • Member of the Joint Commission of Pharmacy Practitioners (JCPP) • Most other pharmacy organizations have ties to APhA The APhA Headquarters Building – Washington, D.C. Healthcare Distribution Alliance (HDA) • Founded on March 15, 1876 under the name Western Wholesale Druggists’ Association (WWDA). The name was changed to the National Wholesale Druggists’ Association in 1882, to the Healthcare Distribution Management Association in 2000, and to the Healthcare Distribution Alliance in 2016. • Mission is to protect patient safety and access to medicines through safe and efficient distribution; advocate for standards, public policies and business processes that enhance the safety, efficiency and value of the healthcare supply chain; and, create and exchange industry knowledge and best practices. National Community Pharmacists Association (NCPA) • Founded in 1898 as the National Association of Retail Druggists (NARD) • Headquartered in Alexandria, Virginia • Represents the pharmacist owners, managers, and employees of more than 22,000 independent community pharmacies across the U.S. • U.S. independent pharmacies, independent pharmacy franchises, and independent chains dispense approximately 40 percent of the nation's retail prescription medicines • Serves as a champion for community pharmacy on Capitol Hill • Mission: Dedicated to the continuing growth and prosperity of independent community pharmacy in the U.S. • Has developed an aggressive student-outreach program aimed at educating students about pharmacy ownership • Member of the Joint Commission of Pharmacy Practitioners (JCPP) National Association of Chain Drug Stores (NACDS) • Founded in 1933 • The mission of NACDS is to advance the interests and objectives of the chain community pharmacy industry, by fostering its growth and promoting its role as a provider of healthcare services and consumer products. American College of Apothecaries (ACA) • Founded in 1940 • Headquartered in Bartlett, Tennessee • Has over 1000 members, from both U.S. and Canada • Primary focus is independent community pharmacy practice • Vision Dedicated to the advancement of professional practice in independent community pharmacy through entrepreneurship and mentoring. • Mission Dedicated to advancing the entrepreneurial spirit of member pharmacists through education, innovation, mentoring, fellowship and training • Member of the Joint Commission of Pharmacy Practitioners (JCPP) American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (ASHP) • • • • • • Founded in 1942 as the American Society of Hospital Pharmacists Began as a subsection of hospital pharmacists at APhA in 1936 Changed name to American Society of Health-System Pharmacists in 1994 Headquartered in Washington D.C. Has over 45,000 members ASHP Vision is that medication use will be optimal, safe, and effective for all people all of the time. • ASHP Mission for pharmacists is to help people achieve optimal health outcomes • Best known as the primary organization for the accreditation of pharmacy residency programs • Member of the Joint Commission of Pharmacy Practitioners (JCPP) National Pharmaceutical Association (NPhA) • Founded in 1947 • The National Pharmaceutical Association is dedicated to representing the views and ideals of minority pharmacists on critical issues affecting health care and pharmacy, as well as advancing the standards of pharmaceutical care among all practitioners. Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA) • Founded as the Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association in 1958 • Represents the country’s leading pharmaceutical industry research and biotechnology companies • Mission is to conduct effective advocacy for public policies that encourage the discovery of important, new medicines for patients by biopharmaceutical research companies. • Headquartered in Washington, DC American Society of Consultant Pharmacists (ASCP) • Founded in 1969; the only international professional society devoted to optimal medication management and improved health outcomes for all older adults • Headquartered in Alexandria, Virginia • Represents over 9,000 pharmacy professionals • ASCP Vision is to achieve safe, effective, and appropriate use of medications by all older adults. • ASCP Mission involves empowering pharmacists to promote healthy aging through the appropriate use of medications. • Focuses on building relationships with other pharmacy, aging, and long-term care associations • Works closely with officials from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid (CMS) • Member of the Joint Commission of Pharmacy Practitioners (JCPP) American College of Clinical Pharmacy (ACCP) • Founded in 1979 by ASHP members who practiced clinical pharmacy at an advanced level • International organization • Headquarters in Lenexa, and Washington D.C. • Criteria for full membership are more restrictive than those of other pharmacy organizations • Strong relationship with the Board of Pharmaceutical Specialties (BPS) • ACCP Vision to drive positive changes in health care as the professional organization most influential in advancing clinical pharmacist roles and responsibilities to optimize pharmacotherapy in the prevention and treatment of disease • ACCP Mission is to improve human health by extending the frontiers of clinical pharmacy less through strategic initiatives, partnerships, collaborations, and alliances • Member of the Joint Commission of Pharmacy Practitioners (JCPP) Professional Compounding Centers of America (PCCA) • Founded in 1981 • Involves over 4,000 independent community pharmacies in the U.S., Canada, Australia, and other countries around the world • Headquartered in Houston, Texas • Mission is to help pharmacists and prescribers create personalized medicine that makes a difference in patients’ lives American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists (AAPS) • Founded in 1986 • Formerly the Academy of Pharmaceutical Research Scientists of APhA • Represent pharmaceutical researchers (pharmacology, medicinal chemistry and pharmaceutics) • Mission: To advance the capacity of pharmaceutical scientists to develop products and therapies that improve global health • Vision: Advancing the pharmaceutical sciences to drive prevention and cures. • Five core values: Learning, Innovation, Service, Inclusiveness and Integrity. Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy (AMCP) • Founded in 1989 representing over 8000 members • Headquartered in Alexandria, Virginia • Nation’s leading professional association dedicated to increasing patient access to affordable medicines, improving health outcomes and ensuring the wise use of health care dollars • Active membership available to all including pharmacists, physicians, nurses, physician assistants, students • AMCP Vision to improve health care for all • AMCP Mission to empower its members to serve society by using sound medication management principles and strategies to improve health care for all • Academy members manage medication therapies for the 270 million Americans served by health plans, pharmacy benefit management firms, emerging care models and government • Member of the Joint Commission of Pharmacy Practitioners (JCPP) American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) • The national organization representing the interests of pharmacy education founded in 1900 • Headquartered in Alexandria, Virginia • The association includes institutional members - the 142 schools of pharmacy accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education • Represents more than 6,400 faculty, 62,500 students enrolled in professional programs and 5,100 individuals pursuing graduate study. • AACP Vision envisions a world of healthy people through the transformation of health professions education • AACP Mission is to advance pharmacy education, research, scholarship, practice and service, in partnership with members and stakeholders, to improve health for all • Member of the Joint Commission of Pharmacy Practitioners (JCPP) Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE) • Founded in 1932, was originally called the American Council on Pharmaceutical Education • Not a government agency • Is the national accreditation agency for all U.S. pharmacy schools and all U.S. pharmacist continuing education programs. • ACPE initially established standards for the baccalaureate degree in pharmacy and then added the doctor of pharmacy standards as an alternative. • In 2000, ACPE announced the conversion to the doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) as the sole entry-level degree for the profession of pharmacy. Board of Pharmacy Specialties (BPS) • In January of 1973, a Task Force on Specialties in Pharmacy was created by the American Pharmacists Association (APhA). • BPS was organized in 1976 as an independent certification agency of APhA. • Vision Statement: The Board of Pharmacy Specialties, the premier postlicensure certification agency, will ensure that BPS Board Certified Pharmacists are recognized within healthcare delivery systems while serving the needs of the public and the pharmacy profession. • Mission Statement: The Mission of the Board of Pharmacy Specialties is to improve patient care by promoting the recognition and value of specialized training, knowledge, and skills in pharmacy and specialty board certification of pharmacists. • Currently Recognized Specialties (12): Nuclear, Nutrition Support, Pharmacotherapy, Psychiatry, Oncology, Ambulatory Care, Critical Care, Pediatrics, Cardiology, Infectious Diseases, Geriatrics, and Compounded Sterile Products. National Association of Boards of Pharmacy (NABP) • First attempt (1890-1892): Association of Boards of Pharmacy & Secretaries of State Pharmaceutical Associations • Founded 1904 • Not a government agency • Members are board members of the U.S. state and territory boards of pharmacy • Represents all of the states’ boards of pharmacy • Responsible for maintenance of Model Pharmacy Practice Act • Maintains NAPLEX, MPJE, and PCOA examinations American Institute of the History of Pharmacy (AIHP) • Founded in 1941 by: • • • • • • Dr. Arthur H. Uhl, Director of the UW School of Pharmacy Dr. Edward Kremers, Director Emeritus of the UW School of Pharmacy Dr. Louis W. Busse, Professor at the UW School of Pharmacy Dr. Lloyd M. Parks, Professor at the UW School of Pharmacy Jennings Murphy, Secretary of the Wisconsin Pharmaceutical Association Dr. George Urdang, former Director of the German Society of the History of Pharmacy • Mission is to advance knowledge and understanding of the history of pharmacy and medicines. • Headquartered at the University of Wisconsin-Madison • Membership is open to any who share an interest in the history of pharmacy. • Has extensive pharmacy archives – called the Kremers Files • Journal: Pharmacy in History American Society for Pharmacy Law (ASPL) • Founded in 1974. • ASPL is the organization of attorneys, pharmacists, pharmacistattorneys and students of pharmacy or law who are interested in the law as it applies to pharmacy, pharmacists, wholesalers, manufacturers, state and federal government and other interested parties. • ASPL is a nonprofit organization with the purposes of: • Furthering knowledge in the law related to pharmacists, pharmacies, the provision of pharmaceutical care, the manufacturing and distribution of drugs, and other food, drug, and medical device policy issues; • Communicating accurate legal educational information; and • Providing educational opportunities for pharmacists, attorneys, and others who are interested in pharmacy law Rennebohm Hall n University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Pharmacy 777 Highland Avenue n Madison, WI 53705-2222 n 608.262.5378 n aihp@aihp.org This slide presentation was compiled and produced by Robert McCarthy, Ph.D., Professor and Dean Emeritus at the University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy for his class “The History of American Pharmacy.” Prof. McCarthy created this version of the slide talk for his class in the Spring of 2016. This slide presentation was downloaded from the Teaching the History of Pharmacy section of the website of the American Institute of the History of Pharmacy (https://aihp.org/historicalresources/teaching-the-history-of-pharmacy/) where a copy of the syllabus (.pdf) for Prof. McCarthy’s class is also available. This .pdf copy of the slide presentation was shared with the permission of Prof. Robert McCarthy for the personal and educational use of interested readers. PHRX 4001W-002 The History of American Pharmacy Spring 2016 ? The American Pharmaceutical industry was really born out of necessity during the American Revolution, when manufactured drugs were unavailable from Great Britain. ? Andrew Craigie, a Boston apothecary, was appointed to serve the Continental Army as Apothecary General; he developed a plan to establish a laboratory and storehouse for the production of drugs for medicine chests at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, the first largescale manufacturing of drugs in the United States. ? After the American Revolution. Philadelphia became the center of the fledgling American Pharmaceutical Industry. ? 1786: The Marshall brothers began manufacturing ammonium chloride and Glauber’s salt (decahydrate of sodium sulfate; used as a laxative). ? Although there were many patent drug makers prior to the 1850s, there were only a few American manufacturers producing drugs that pharmacists used in medication compounding. ? 1818: Farr & Kunzi (later named Powers & Weightman) • One of only two U.S. manufacturers to produce quinine sulfate in 1822, only two years after it was isolated from cinchona bark by two pharmacists in Paris. ? 1822: Rosengarten & Sons • Also produced quinine sulfate • Manufactured morphine salts in 1832 • Produced mercurials and strychnine in 1843 • Manufactured codeine in 1836 ? 1905: Powers & Weightman merged with Rosengarten & Sons ? 1927: Merck & Company acquired the Powers-Weightman-Rosengarten Company ? 1855: Frederick Stearns began manufacturing packaged medicinals at his Detroit pharmacy. ? 1856: William Warner (PA) began producing packaged medicines; later, he established a manufacturing plant that became the most successful manufacturer of sugar-coated tablets. ? Edward R. Squibb, who had apprenticed in a pharmacy, served in the U.S. Navy as assistant director of its pharmaceutical lab; after leaving the Navy, in 1858, he established E.R. Squibb, which began by producing “chemically pure ether and chloroform.” Source: American Pharmacists Association ? There were concerns in the 1850s about the growth of pharmaceutical manufacturers, who were taking preparing and dispensing away from community pharmacies; also, concerns that these manufacturers were not pharmacists and therefore not qualified to be manufacturing pharmaceuticals. ? The American pharmaceutical industry changed significantly during the Civil War as a result of the demands of the military. ? Some of the tensions between APhA, representing practicing pharmacists, and the pharmaceutical industry began to abate; in fact, several industry leaders assumed leadership roles within APhA. ? First began to appear in the 19th century ? Became popular as an alternative to “heroic” measures employed by physicians ? Were widely available in all types of stores ? Many were of little benefit and contained only alcohol, water, and flavoring ? Sales were greatly enhanced by advertising and personal testimonies ? The names of the company’s founder gave credibility to the products ? “Ethical” pharmaceutical company ? Sharp & Dohme (1860; later MS&D) ? Burroughs Wellcome & Company (1863) ? Eli Lilly & Company (1876) ? Lloyd (1870; later part of Hoechst Pharmaceuticals) ? McKesson & Robbins (1853; later a drug wholesaler) ? Parke, Davis & Company (1866) ? W.H. Schieffelin & Company (1865) ? Seabury & Johnson (1885) ? Smith, Kline, and Company (1875) ? John Wyeth & Brother (1860) Source: American Pharmacists Association Source: American Institute of the History of Pharmacy ? Until the early 20th century, pharmaceutical companies were primarily manufacturers, not focused on research & development. ? WWI led many American manufacturers, including Lilly, Merck, Parke-Davis, & Squibb to develop their own research facilities, though most cutting edge research was still conducted in Europe. ? After WWI, companies began early research efforts, primarily, at the start, to validate quality, purity, and assay. ? The advent of WII led the to first partnership among government, corporate, and academic institutions, which laid the foundation for what became known as “big pharma.” ? With the advent of WWII, international supplies of some products were not available, such as quinine, requiring American manufacturers to develop a source of these drugs. ? Manufacturers worked with the U.S. government in the development of drugs and biologicals needed for the war effort. ? Penicillin was one of the most important drugs developed during the war; ten U.S. pharmaceutical companies teamed in research & development efforts. ? The immediate post-war period saw the development of additional antibiotics and the first antihistamine (Benadryl by Parke-Davis). ? 1960-1980: A period of industry maturation; oral contraceptives, nonsteroidals, anti-inflammatories, cephalosporins, anxiolytics developed ? Post 1980: globalization, biotechnology & “blockbuster” drugs ? Recent years: Absence of targets ? Biotechnology • New companies: Genentec (1976), Biogen (1978), Amgen (1980), Immunex (1981) • Some companies brought their products from discovery to marketing, others licensed existing pharmaceutical companies to bring their products to market. ? Mergers & Acquisitions • Have occurred for decades, but have accelerated significantly in recent years ? GlaxoSmithKline—previously Glaxo, Beecham, Smith, Kline, and French, Burroughs Wellcome, SmithKline Beecham, Glaxo Wellcome • Most mergers were horizontal, but the 1990s saw the acquisition of PBMs (vertical; Lilly acquired PCS); most of the mergers did not last long and the pharmaceutical companies divested within a few short years. 1907: American Association of Pharmaceutical Chemists (1920, name changed to the American Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association) ? 1912: National Association of Manufacturers of Medicinal Products (1917, name changed to American Drug Manufacturers Association) ? 1958: These associations merged to become the Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association (now called the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America or PhRMA) ? “Big Pharma” ? ? 1946: Parenteral Drug Association ? 1955: National Association of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers; 1981: Generic Pharmaceutical Industry Association; these merged in 2001 to become the Generic Pharmaceutical Association. ? 1953: National Pharmaceutical Council— formed to do public relations for major research-oriented pharmaceutical manufacturers. Source: American Pharmacists Association Source: American Pharmacists Association Source: American Pharmacists Association Source: American Pharmacists Association Rennebohm Hall n University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Pharmacy 777 Highland Avenue n Madison, WI 53705-2222 n 608.262.5378 n aihp@aihp.org This slide presentation was compiled and produced by Robert McCarthy, Ph.D., Professor and Dean Emeritus at the University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy for his class “The History of American Pharmacy.” Prof. McCarthy created this version of the slide talk for his class in the Spring of 2016. This slide presentation was downloaded from the Teaching the History of Pharmacy section of the website of the American Institute of the History of Pharmacy (https://aihp.org/historicalresources/teaching-the-history-of-pharmacy/) where a copy of the syllabus (.pdf) for Prof. McCarthy’s class is also available. This .pdf copy of the slide presentation was shared with the permission of Prof. Robert McCarthy for the personal and educational use of interested readers. EVOLUTION OF THE PHARMACOPOEIA PHRX 4001W-002 The History of American Pharmacy Spring 2016 An American Pharmacopeia • 1808: The Massachusetts Pharmacopoeia is published providing a state guide to drug standards. • The Massachusetts Pharmacopoeia was used by apothecaries to properly ?ll prescriptions from physicians since it de?ned the identity of drugs and preparations. • 1820: The U.S. Pharmacopeial Convention founded in Washington, DC; although all state medical societies were invited to send delegates, only 11 states attended; only about 200 drugs were included in the ?rst USP since they were the only ones deemed “most fully established and best understood.” United States Pharmacopoeia (USP) • 1830: The ?rst revision of the USP published; revisions continue at an interval of every 10 years. • 1848: Congress passes legislation making the USP an o?cial compendium. • 1888: First National Formulary (NF) published by the American Pharmaceutical (now Pharmacists) Association. • 1900: USP Convention and Board of Trustees created. • 1906: USP and NF standards for strength, quality, and purity recognized as o?cial. United States Pharmacopoeia (USP) • 1938: USP and NF standards for strength, quality, purity, packaging, and labeling recognized as o?cial and enforced by FDA; "New Drug" concept established; FDA approves drugs for safety before marketing. • 1942: USP revision cycle changed to every 5 years. • 1971: USP moves headquarters to Rockville, MD. • 1975: USP acquires NF from APhA. • 1977: USP and NF scope rede?ned: USP speci?es standards for drug substances and dosage forms; NF speci?es standards for excipients. • 1980: USP and NF published under same cover; USP Dispensing Information (USP DI) published. • 1993: Federal Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Acts (OBRA '90 and '93) name USP DI as source of information that state Medicaid agencies can use for drug utilization review, patient counseling, and medically accepted o?-label uses of medicines. United States Pharmacopoeia (USP) • 1994: USP signs an agreement with the American Medical Association to combine the information in AMA's Drug Evaluations database with the USP DI database to develop a single product that contains drug and therapeutic information. • 2002: USP-NF published annually. • 2000s: USP develops o?ces/laboratories around the world and collaborates with the pharmacopoeias of other nations in developing drug standards. Source: USP Web Site National Formulary • 1883: NY Pharmacist Samuel Bendiner and NY hospital pharmacist Charles Rice led an e?ort to modernize the US Pharmacopoeia; Bendiner inspired the creation of the New York and Brooklyn Formulary (NYBF); Rice negotiated an agreement to share the information in the NYBF to develop a national formulary, which it was hoped would be used by physicians in prescribing rather than recommending the use of proprietary medicines. • 1886: APhA published a preliminary draft of the National Formulary of Uno?cinal Preparations, asking for feedback from the pharmacy profession. • 1888: The National Formulary (NF) is published for the ?rst time by APhA. • 1906: The second revision of the NF coincides with the passage of the Food & Drug Act, which named the NF as one of the o?cial standards for pharmaceuticals, much to the surprise of APhA. National Formulary (NF) • The ?rst three editions of the NF provided practicing pharmacists with formulas for small scale compounding, allowing for competition with ready-made preparations. • 1916: National Formulary IV set “de?nite standards.” • 1935: The NF established a drug standards lab at the University of Illinois College of Pharmacy. • 1938: APhA established the Drug Standards Laboratory in Washington, DC.; during the 1960s, this lab was revitalized through ?nancial support from USP (which was using this lab’s services) and the AMA. • In 1960, there were discussion of merging the NF and USP; by 1966, formal discussion of a merger was underway. • 1975: USP purchased both the NF and Drug Standards Laboratory from APhA. • 1998: USP licensed USP DI to The Thomson Company; USP DI is published by their Micromedex subsidiary. USP Today • “USP is a unique organization whose activities are directed by three governing bodies composed of more than 900 volunteers and whose day-to-day operations are managed by an executive team and sta? of more than 800 employees.” • “Governance: USP is governed by the Convention membership, the Board of Trustees, and the Council of Experts and its Expert Committees. These decisionmaking bodies guide USP’s activities in the best interest of quality public health.” • “Executive Team: USP’s executive team helps manage all USP operations at its ?ve international locations in support of the governing bodies’ standards-setting activities. USP sta? provide support for volunteer and member activities, scienti?c testing, quality assurance, standards acquisition, veri?cation services, training in developing regions, education programs, customer service, harmonization, and outreach and communications e?orts.” Source: USP Web Site. USP Today USP’s Compendial Activities The United States Pharmacopeia and the National Formulary (USP–NF) Food Chemicals Codex USP Dietary Supplements Compendium USP Medicines Compendium (MC) Reference Standards Other Resources – Pharmacopeial Forum – FCC Forum – USP Dictionary – Chromatographic Columns USP Today • United States Pharmacopeia 38 - National Formulary 33 • Published November 1, 2014; o?cial May 1, 2015 • Supplement 1 to the United States Pharmacopeia 38 - National Formulary 33 • Published February 1, 2015; o?cial August 1, 2015 • Supplement 2 to the United States Pharmacopeia 38 - National Formulary 33 • Published June 1, 2015; o?cial December 1, 2015 Rennebohm Hall n University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Pharmacy 777 Highland Avenue n Madison, WI 53705-2222 n 608.262.5378 n aihp@aihp.org This slide presentation was compiled and produced by Robert McCarthy, Ph.D., Professor and Dean Emeritus at the University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy for his class “The History of American Pharmacy.” Prof. McCarthy created this version of the slide talk for his class in the Spring of 2016. This slide presentation was downloaded from the Teaching the History of Pharmacy section of the website of the American Institute of the History of Pharmacy (https://aihp.org/historicalresources/teaching-the-history-of-pharmacy/) where a copy of the syllabus (.pdf) for Prof. McCarthy’s class is also available. This .pdf copy of the slide presentation was shared with the permission of Prof. Robert McCarthy for the personal and educational use of interested readers. Professional Organizations PHRX 4001W-002 The History of American Pharmacy Spring 2016 • One of the important incentives for the founding of APhA was the problem of adulterated drugs and the ineffectiveness of the Drug Importation Act of 1848. • October 1852: First organizational meeting of what was to become the American Pharmaceutical Association is held in Philadelphia American Pharmacists Association • At the 1852 meeting, 9 objectives were laid out for the new organization: • • • • • • Creation of a national association. Support of schools of pharmacy. Improve the selection and training of pharmacy apprentices. Investigate secret medicines and quackery. Urge enactment of laws for the inspection of imported drugs. Adopt the National Pharmacopoeia to guide the preparation of medicines. • Curb indiscriminate sale of poisons. • Separate the practice of pharmacy from the practice of medicine. • Encourage the presentation of original papers on pharmacy & science. American Pharmacists Association • Many free-standing professional organizations in pharmacy, such as the American Society of HealthSystem Pharmacists, were established within APhA. • Today, the American Pharmacists Association is considered the umbrella organization for pharmacists, with chapters in all 50 states and at most schools of pharmacy. American Pharmacists Association • 1936: A hospital pharmacy section is formed within APhA, providing hospital pharmacists with a national voice for the first time . • 1942: The American Society of Hospital Pharmacists is established. • 1945: The original ASHP constitution included three goals: • Establish minimum standards of pharmacy services in a hospital. • Facilitate interchange among hospital pharmacists and encourage development of new pharmaceutical techniques. • Assist the medical profession in extending the economic and rational use of medication. American Society of Health-System Pharmacists • 1995: Name changed to the American Society of HealthSystem Pharmacists • Early contributions of ASHP • Bulletin of the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists • American Hospital Formulary Service • Minimum Standards for Pharmacies in Hospitals • Current contributions of ASHP • American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy • AHFS Drug Information and other print and electronic drug references • Handbook on Injectable Drugs • Residency accreditation American Society of Health-System Pharmacists • ASCP is a pharmacy professional organization dedicated to medication management in older persons. • 1965: Medicare legislation introduces “consultant pharmacist.” • 1969: ASCP incorporated; first ASCP Annual Meeting. • 1974: State chapters hold first regional meetings. • 1982: ASCP Research & Education Foundation established; The Consultant Pharmacist first published. American Society of Consultant Pharmacists • NCPA is the professional pharmacy organization for independent pharmacists; plays an important role as a political advocate for independent pharmacies, as well as a supporter of community pharmacy ownership. • 1898: National Association of Retail Druggists (NARD) founded. • 1932: The Lilly Digest (now called the NCPA Digest) is first published providing financial and demographic information about independent community pharmacy. • 1953: Originally founded as the John A. Dargavel Memorial Foundation, the NCPA Foundation’s mission is to support independent pharmacists and pharmacy students. • 1996: NARD is renamed the National Community Pharmacists Association. National Community Pharmacists Association • • • NACDS was founded in 1933 as the national pharmacy organization representing chain pharmacies, national, regional and local; as compared to pharmacy organizations, NACDS is a corporate organization whose members are the pharmacy chain industry, not chain pharmacists. The NACDS foundation supports educational (including pharmacy student scholarships) and research initiatives that “help people improve their health and quality of life through an understanding of medication therapy and the importance of taking medications appropriately.” The NACDS mission is to: • • • • “Foster an advantageous business and political environment in which NACDS chain member companies are better able to achieve their business objectives. Promote the role and value of chain community pharmacy as an integral component of the healthcare system, thus helping to preserve its viability. Provide effective channels of communication, involvement and forums for members and other stakeholders. Ensure that NACDS internally operates as a cutting edge association, effectively meeting the needs of its membership.” (Source: NACDS webpage) National Association of Chain Drug Stores • Established in 1988 as a national professional organization focused on pharmacy practice in managed care environments • 1988-1992: AMCP held its first national meeting and inaugurated the AMCP News. • 1993-1995: First issue of the Journal of Managed Care Pharmacy, published Principles & Practices of Managed Care Pharmacy • 1996-1998: Diplomat program established; first student chapters founded at colleges of pharmacy • 2000s: With ASHP, developed accreditation standards for managed care pharmacy residencies; created Format for Formulary Submissions, used by many health plans and the government to assess drugs based on effectiveness/quality Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy • Founded in 1979 to support the advancement of clinical pharmacy; originally the home of, primarily, PharmD trained professionals who practiced/conducted clinical research in hospitals, universities, and ambulatory care settings • Played a key role in pharmacotherapy being recognized as a specialty certification in pharmacy • Publishes the journal Pharmacotherapy • Conducts peer review of research fellowships American College of Clinical Pharmacy • Founded in 1900, AACP is the professional home of pharmacy education, representing schools and colleges of pharmacy and their faculty & staff; its mission is to advance education, scholarship, practice, and service. • AACP offers member schools and individuals development and support opportunities in the areas of curricular development, assessment, leadership, and professional/career development. • AACP is a national advocate for pharmacy education and works collaboratively with other professional organizations in pharmacy and higher education. American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy • NABP was founded in 1904; its mission is to support boards of pharmacy in their mission to regulate the practice of pharmacy and protect public health. • NABP groups pharmacy boards in the United States, Canada, Australia & New Zealand into 8 districts. • NABP offers a number of examinations, programs, and accreditations including NAPLEX, MPJE, CPE Monitor Service, and VIPPS, and Licensure Transfer. • NABP offers The Model State Pharmacy Act and Model Rules of the National Association of Boards of Pharmacy (Model Act) for use in developing state laws and board regulations. National Association of Boards of Pharmacy • • • • • • • • • • • American College of Apothecaries American Society for Pharmacy Law American Institute for the History of Pharmacy American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists College of Psychiatric & Neurologic Pharmacists American Society of Veterinary Hospital Pharmacists Hematology/Oncology Pharmacy Association Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists American Society of Pharmacognosy Drug Information Association International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP) Other Professional Organizations • 2004: Leaders of 15 pharmacy organizations met to discuss the future of pharmacy practice; in 2005, JCPP members approved a vision statement for “Pharmacy Practice in 2015;” JCPP continues to operate as a policy-making organization. • Comprised of Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy, American College of Apothecaries, American College of Clinical Pharmacy, American Pharmacists Association, American Society of Consultant Pharmacists, American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, National Community Pharmacists Association; Liaison Members: American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education, National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, and National Alliance of State Pharmacy Associations. Joint Commission of Pharmacy Practitioners • Many of the national pharmacy professional organizations have state chapters/affiliates: Connecticut Pharmacists Association, Connecticut Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Connecticut Chapter of the American Society of Consultant Pharmacists; chapters hold annual meetings, offer CE programs, and some publish journals (Pharmacy Journal of New England) and newsletters; these state associations often were the founders of schools of pharmacy. • 1876: Connecticut Pharmaceutical (now Pharmacists) Association is formed (first state pharmacy association was in New Jersey); in the early days, there were often also associations within regions of a state (Bridgeport Pharmaceutical Association). State Pharmacy Associations