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Homework answers / question archive / Final Critical Reflection Directions: For this assignment, you will be using the database to find an article that interests you

Final Critical Reflection Directions: For this assignment, you will be using the database to find an article that interests you

Writing

Final Critical Reflection Directions: For this assignment, you will be using the database to find an article that interests you. Once you have found an article, you will read it and write a paper that reflects on and answers questions about the article. Since we are working with values, ethics, assumptions, fallacies, questionable language, and bias, make sure the article you choose has clear opinions from the author. Do not choose an article that does not have one or more of the major components you need to write about. Follow the steps below to find your article. The directions for how to complete the paper are listed below the directions. Step 1: Go to the MCC homepage, and click on Library. Step 2: Scroll down, click on ‘eResources/Databases,’ and click ‘Recommended eResources/Databases’ below the magnifying glass. Step 3: Click on ‘Opposing Viewpoints’ Step 4: Log in with your MEID and password. Step 5: Click on 'Browse Issues' on the right-hand side. Step 6: Scroll through all the topics, select one that interests you, and click on it. Step 7: Click 'Viewpoints' in the middle of page. Paper Directions Write in paragraph form for this assignment. All sentences must be 10 words or more except in paragraph #2. The sentence requirements listed below are the minimum amount of sentences you need to write to develop a good paper. You can always write more, but please don’t write less. If the article you chose does not have enough information for you to answer all the questions below, choose a different article. Paragraph 1: Introduction 1. Introduce the topic, title, and the author of the article you chose (1 sentence). 2. Give a brief summary of the article (3-4 sentences). Paragraph 2: Address the argument in the article 1. What is the main issue being addressed in the article? (Write this as a yes or no question.) 2. What is the author’s conclusion on the issue? (Answer the issue using the same words.) 3. Provide at least two reasons to support the conclusion. Paragraph 3: Analysis 1. Explain the author’s values (at least two) that are evident in the argument. Why do you think the author has these values? (4 sentences) 2. Based on the values, explain what the author might be assuming in the argument. Why do you think the author holds these assumptions? (2 sentences) 3. Was there any research to support the argument or was there a lack of research? Does that strengthen or weaken the argument? (3 sentences) Paragraph 4: Analysis 1. Based on the information in the article and the opinions of the author, do you believe the author is ethical and has high ethical standards? Explain. (3 sentences) 2. Identify at least two logical fallacies you found in the argument. Name the fallacies, and explain how they were used in the argument in your own words. (4 sentences) 3. Do you think using these fallacies were effective? Did the fallacies help or harm the argument overall? Why or why not? (3 sentences) Paragraph 5: Analysis 1. Identify two examples of questionable language in the article, and explain them in detail. Name the questionable language terms, and explain how they were used in the argument in your own words. (4 sentences) 2. What bias does the author show? What is the author biased toward, and does this negatively impact the article in any way? Explain. (4 sentences) Paragraph 6: Response 1. Do you believe the author’s argument was convincing overall? Focus on the reasons given to support. What other evidence could the author have given to make the argument stronger? (4 sentences) 2. Where do you stand on the topic presented in the article? In other words, what are your personal opinions about the information presented in the article? Do you agree or disagree with the author's argument? Explain. (5 sentences) Paragraph 7: Conclusion 1. Wrap up your paper by providing concluding statements or opinions (2 sentences). CONTINUE SCROLLING Source Citation 1. Scroll down to the end of the article and copy the 'Citation Information'. Paste it into the end of your essay under the title: Source. Requirements: • All sentences need to be 10 words (except paragraph #2). • Break your reflection into multiple paragraphs. Indent each paragraph. • Capitalize names and beginnings of sentences. • Type your response in the template provided. • Double space your document. • Use Times New Roman or Cambria size 12. Disclaimer: This is a machine generated PDF of selected content from our products. This functionality is provided solely for your convenience and is in no way intended to replace original scanned PDF. Neither Cengage Learning nor its licensors make any representations or warranties with respect to the machine generated PDF. The PDF is automatically generated "AS IS" and "AS AVAILABLE" and are not retained in our systems. CENGAGE LEARNING AND ITS LICENSORS SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIM ANY AND ALL EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING WITHOUT LIMITATION, ANY WARRANTIES FOR AVAILABILITY, ACCURACY, TIMELINESS, COMPLETENESS, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. Your use of the machine generated PDF is subject to all use restrictions contained in The Cengage Learning Subscription and License Agreement and/or the Gale In Context: Opposing Viewpoints Terms and Conditions and by using the machine generated PDF functionality you agree to forgo any and all claims against Cengage Learning or its licensors for your use of the machine generated PDF functionality and any output derived therefrom. Improving College Students' Mental Health Author: Kerry McDonald Date: 2020 From: Gale Opposing Viewpoints Online Collection Publisher: Gale, a Cengage Company Document Type: Viewpoint essay Length: 1,054 words Content Level: (Level 4) Lexile Measure: 1290L Full Text: Article Commentary "It is a scary time for parents of today's college students, as this cohort experiences rising rates of mental illness and a prevailing college culture that emphasizes fragility over self-empowerment." Kerry McDonald is the author of Unschooled: Raising Curious, Well-Educated Children Outside the Conventional Classroom. In the following viewpoint, McDonald argues that college students experience high rates of depression and anxiety because they have been overly coddled and lack the tools to deal with everyday stress. The author notes that college students report high levels of anxiety and depression and have historically high suicide rates. McDonald acknowledges that increased awareness among students and a general willingness to seek help are positive developments that partially explain the statistics. However, the author suggests that coddling children and treating college students as mentally fragile are problematic contributing factors. McDonald expresses concern that parents prevent children from developing the tools necessary to deal with their problems. Further, the author asserts, colleges focus too much on trauma and mental illness, encouraging students to see themselves as unwell. As you read, consider the following questions: 1. What evidence does the author provide to support her generalizations about college student mental health? 2. Do you agree with McDonald's assertion that over-supervision of children leaves them unprepared to deal with everyday stressors once they reach college? Explain your response. 3. What steps, if any, do you think parents can take to reduce college students' levels of stress, anxiety, and depression? Explain your reasoning. With college classes underway for the fall semester, parents may worry about how their children will navigate campus life, balance academics and social pressures, and find their pathway to a meaningful career. While parents of college students have long shared these common worries, they now confront new concerns. The number of college students experiencing mental health issues has soared, with survey findings from the Association for University and College Counseling Center Directors suggesting that 41 percent of college students are anxious and 36 percent are depressed. A 2018 survey by the American College Health Association found that 63 percent of college students reported feeling overwhelming anxiety over the previous year, 42 percent said they felt so depressed it was difficult to function over the previous year, and 12 percent seriously considered suicide. Add to these findings the data showing that the suicide rate for US teenagers and young adults is the highest on record, and parents are right to be worried. So what is causing this mental health crisis among college-age young people? There are undoubtedly many contributing factors. Greater awareness of mental health issues and more willingness to seek help are positive steps forward that may drive some of the increase in reporting, but there could be other, less favorable explanations, as well. Too Much Coddling Some of the emotional turmoil of college students could be linked to a coddled childhood and adolescence that limits young people from developing the resilience necessary to deal with stress, anxiety, and uncertainty. In their book, The Coddling of the American Mind: How Good Intentions and Bad Ideas Are Setting Up a Generation for Failure, Greg Lukianoff and Jonathan Haidt trace some of the increased fragility of today's college students to padded playgrounds, constant adult supervision and structure, more screen time and less authentic, in-person interaction, and an overall emphasis on safety. They write: On average, eighteen-year-olds today have spent less time unsupervised and have hit fewer developmental milestones on the path to autonomy (such as getting a job or a driver's license), compared with eighteen-year-olds in previous generations. (p. 160) More supervision and less autonomy, combined with social media influences, could be making college students more prone to anxiety and depression in young adulthood. According to Lukianoff and Haidt: Both depression and anxiety cause changes in cognition, including a tendency to see the world as more dangerous and hostile than it really is. (p. 161) In other words, the normal stressors of college may be perceived by some of today's students as disproportionately dreadful. Campus Victim Culture A key focus of Lukianoff and Haidt's book is that the fragility of today's college students leads them to demand protection and security on campus, including the call for "safe spaces" and "trigger warnings." Discomfort may be confused with harm, leading more college students to report emotional distress. In his new book, Panic Attack: Young Radicals in the Age of Trump, Robby Soave explores the victim culture on college campuses in greater detail. He explains that on some college campuses, the focus on mental health has reached an extreme. Soave describes a visit to the University of Arizona campus, where signs such as "Breathe in. Breathe out. You got this," and "44% of ASU students report having difficulty managing stress," are ubiquitous and direct students to the college's mental health services. Soave explains: People who need help shouldn't be afraid to ask for it. But at so many campuses, it has begun to feel like mental instability and trauma are the norm—that students are encouraged to see themselves as sick and vulnerable, and so they do. They have fully appropriated the language of mental illness. (p. 495) Encourage Self-Empowerment Given the trends and statistics on college students' mental health, it may seem like there is little parents can do to help their collegeage children. But a key step parents can take is to shift the narrative of victimhood and helplessness and encourage their grown children to take control of their own happiness and success. Borrowing the language of FEE's Director of Entrepreneurial Education, T.K. Coleman, parents can help their children to see themselves as the "dominant creative force" in their own lives. These students can set their own path. They can avoid dwelling on obstacles and instead embrace possibilities. They can find their passion, incubate innovative ideas, and build new enterprises that are personally meaningful and societally valuable. They can see themselves as agents of change in the world rather than victims of it. They can be the Revolution of One, as the following brief video spotlights: [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] It is a scary time for parents of today's college students, as this cohort experiences rising rates of mental illness and a prevailing college culture that emphasizes fragility over self-empowerment. Fortunately, parents can encourage their college-age children to be strong, resilient, and focused on being active change agents and value creators in their own lives. Full Text: COPYRIGHT 2021 Gale, a Cengage Company Source Citation (MLA 8th Edition) McDonald, Kerry. "Improving College Students' Mental Health." Gale Opposing Viewpoints Online Collection, Gale, 2021. Gale In Context: Opposing Viewpoints, link.gale.com/apps/doc/PWNYTL761858587/OVIC?u=mcc_mesa&sid=OVIC&xid=ba32adb1. Accessed 6 May 2021. Originally published as "Why so Many College Students Are In Mental Distress—And What Parents Can Do about It," Foundation for Economic Freedom, 13 Sept. 2019. Gale Document Number: GALE|PWNYTL761858587 Title: _____________________________ Source Paste the citation here. Chapter 1: Foundations of an Argument Structure of an Argument Critical Thinkers • • • • Critical thinkers are people who use specific criteria to evaluate reasoning, form positions, and make decisions. Critical thinkers analyze and evaluate information and do not just jump to conclusions. Critical thinkers show awareness, fairmindedness, and empathy. Critical thinkers are open-minded, are willing to hear other people’s views, and are interested in other viewpoints. Chapter 1 Overview • • • In this section of notes, you will learn how to set up a proper argument. In this class, “argument” does not mean disagreement. Actually, it means the opposite. An critical thinker’s argument is a civil discussion involving three steps. You will learn how to format and write the three steps of an argument, and after you learn the proper way to format the steps, you will be able to communicate better with those around you. Foundations of Arguments Argument • • • • Most people hear the word “argument” and automatically think there will be a fight or a disagreement. However, if you want to get through to someone WITHOUT the possibility of fighting, you need to use the proper structure in your conversation or in your writing. For a critical thinker, the definition of argument is different. An argument is a civil conversation involving three steps and a discussion. The discussion will come after the three steps. An critical thinker’s argument has three steps: ask a question (the issue), form an opinion (the conclusion), and state evidence for your beliefs (reasons). Step 1: Issue Should smoking be banned on college campuses? • • • An issue is a YES or NO question you want someone to answer in a conversation. Starting a conversation with a question INSTEAD of a statement or an accusation could prevent fighting and keep things civil. Questions are much nicer to start with in a conversation because the person you’re talking to won’t feel attacked. Step 1: Issue Should smoking be banned on college campuses? • • For example, I live with my brother, and he is a little messy. If I want to ask him to clean his bathroom before guests come over, I would ask, “Can you please clean your bathroom?” Then it is up to him to respond. This yes or no question is much nicer than me saying, “I think you should clean your bathroom today” or “Why haven’t you cleaned your bathroom?” Both questions could be perceived negatively, and I could get a negative response from him. Step 1: Issue Should smoking be banned on college campuses? • • • • For issues (yes or no questions) to work properly, phrase them in question form. An issue is a yes or no question. Start your issue (your question) with words like “should,” “does,” “can,” “will,” “did,” “does,” or any word like this. These words will always provide you with the proper formatting to write a yes or no question. Issues should not start with “why” because some people feel like “why” questions have an attacking tone. Issues should not use the words “or” or “either.” These words present the other person with only two strict options, and some people might feel backed into a corner. Step 1: Issue Examples Issues should be written as yes or no questions. • • • Should the minimum wage be raised? Can watching too much TV lead to health problems? Do cell phones have too many applications? Step 1: Issue Here is how to create an issue for your conversation: Decide what topic you would like to discuss with someone. • • Topics are ideas or subjects. Topics turn into issues (yes or no questions) when a controversy is introduced. Step 1: Issue Take a topic you want to discuss, and create a yes or no question. All these issues are yes or no questions. Do cell phones have too many applications? (Issue) It is your job to create your own issues when you are having a conversation or when you’re reading a text. Are cell phones a danger to our health? (Issue) Cell Phones (Topic) Should cell phones be allowed in the classrooms? (Issue) Can cell phones detract from our safety? (Issue) Step 1: Issue (in reading) • • • When you read a story, a textbook, or an article, you will have to determine what the author’s implied issues (yes or no questions) are. Authors normally will not state any issues (yes or no questions) directly in a text. You will have to read the text and create your own issues (yes or no questions) based on the information presented. Step 2: Conclusion • • • • Once an issue (the yes or no question) has been asked, people can form their own opinions and answer the question. A conclusion is a person’s answer to the issue (the question). A conclusion is a person’s position on the issue (the question), and they form their opinions after hearing the question. Let people form their own opinions, and let them decide what side they’re on. When you say or write a conclusion, the words in a conclusion should closely match the words in the issue to avoid confusion (see the next slide for an example). Smoking should be banned on college campuses Step 2: Conclusion Issue: Should women be on the front lines? Correct Conclusion: Yes, women should be on the front lines. • Incorrect conclusion #1: • Incorrect conclusion #2: should they do?) • Incorrect conclusion #3: • Incorrect conclusion #4: should?) Yes. (What parts do you agree with?) Yes, they should. (Who is they, and what Yes, women should. (Women should what?) Yes, they should be on the front lines. (Who In conversation, it is important to be clear so there is no confusion. Restating the full question along with your opinion in the conclusion allows the other person to know exactly what you mean. Most disagreements stem from confusion or lack of clarity. This will not happen if the issue and conclusion are written and worded correctly. Step 2: Conclusion An author’s conclusion • • • In this class, we will be reading many different texts by different authors. It is important to be able to locate an author’s opinion and determine what side they’re on when a controversial issue arises. To find an author’s conclusion, look at beginning or the end of a text. Look for words and phrases like “therefore,” “so,” “thus,” “my point is,” “what I believe,” “obviously,” or “it is evident that.” Proper Issue and Conclusion Writing Issues • • • Should smoking be banned on campus? Should I move to another state right now? Can watching too much TV lead to health problems? Conclusions • • • Yes, smoking should be banned on campus. No, I should not move to another state right now. Watching too much TV can lead to health problems. Step 3: Reasons • • • • Reasons are also called premises, evidence, support, and justification. Reasons are statements that provide support for a conclusion. Reasons should be stated after an issue (the yes or no question) has been asked and after everyone has stated their conclusions (their opinions) in the correct format. Reasons explain why you have the opinions and ideas you do. A critical thinker is open to hearing other people’s reasons without immediately shutting them down. People smoking on campus is unhealthy, and secondary smoke poses a health risk for other students. There are also issues with students throwing cigarette butts on the ground, which is another hazard. Step 3: Reasons Locating reasons Many people use these words and phrases when explaining their reasons: • first • second • as evidenced by • also • my opinion is • in addition • the reason why I believe this is • this is because • because • I think this because Step 3: Reasons • • • Critical thinkers form reasons based on experience and observations, but it is also important for critical thinkers to do research before forming a solid set of reasons. Opinions are good to have, and personal opinions are valid reasons, but adding research, facts, and statistics to your reasons will make them stronger. You want to include examples, statistics, analogies, studies, research, and expert testimonies into your reasons when you can. Opinions • • • • • One person’s opinion can carry more weight than another’s if their reasons contain facts, statistics, and research. The evidence provided must be credible. Do not find fault with someone’s conclusion (their position on an issue) or their reasons; let them have their opinions. When you are having a conversation, listen to understand. Talk to gain clarity. Remain open-minded and be open to having your opinions challenged. If your opinion changes based on new evidence, there is nothing wrong with that. Critical thinking applies to every formal and informal situation, but you don’t have to take a side on everything. CHAPTER 2: VALUES What is an assumption? • An assumption is a unstated (and often unconscious) belief about the way the world is or should be that affects the way we accept the the reasons and conclusions of others. • We make assumptions all the time. • We can’t live without them, but assumptions can be harmful to make, especially if they are made with no evidence or proof. Values • Values: core beliefs or desires that guide or motivate our attitudes and actions. Our values determine how we will behave and think in certain situations. • Examples: • truth, freedom, health, education, individual privacy, parental rights, friendship, love • WRITE VALUES AS 1-2 WORDS ALWAYS. Values should be written as nouns. • They need to be positive. Values should not be negative. • Our values come from • Family • • • • Peers Media religion Have your values changed over time? If so, what caused them to change? What is a Value? • Values determine your priorities, and deep down, they are probably the measures you use to tell if your life is turning out the way you want it to. • When the things you do and the way you behave match your values, life is usually good, and you’re satisfied and content. • But when the things you do in life do not align with your personal values, life is not always good, and you feel a sense of unhappiness. • As critical thinkers, it is important for people to be honest about their own behavior, and it’s important to learn to distinguish words from actions. • Once we can identify and understand our own personal values, we are then able to analyze and evaluate authors’ values and other people’s values. What is a Value? What is a Value? • A value is an unstated, worthwhile, abstract idea about what you believe is good and right. • Write values as 1-2 word nouns such as truth, loyalty, and freedom. • Everybody has values, and you can’t live without them! • We hold many values in common but to different degrees, which is why we argue so much! • It’s very important to know other people’s values, and you want them to know yours. What is a Value Assumption? The book states a Value Assumption is how we want the world to be. We value family, so we think everyone should value family. • Definition: A Value Assumption is a preference for one value over another in a particular context. In other words, it’s your TOP VALUE IN A GIVEN SITUATION or THE AUTHOR’S TOP VALUE in an article or story. • Every day, your values shift and rotate. The value that is at the top of your list as your #1 value at a certain time during the day is your Value Assumption. • For example, when I go to work, my #1 value (Value Assumption) is work ethic. However, when I go home, my #1 value (Value Assumption) is family. • My values always shift and rotate themselves in different orders, and your values do, too. Stop and think what your #1 value is right now. Later today, stop and think what your #1 value is. That is your Value Assumption. • A Value Assumption is created when a particular (unstated) value “rises to the top” to influence the choice of reasons and the conclusion. Values may add bias to our thinking. • Sometimes our values (and beliefs) cause us to want to accept or reject information based on incomplete or controversial data. • Don’t allow your values to make you closeminded. Keep your values close to your heart and act on your values, but don’t criticize others or be unwilling to listen to someone just because your values are different. What is a Value Conflict? • A Value Conflict is when two competing values cannot be held to the same degree in a given argument or situation. • I value my education and my family. Should I go to class or stay home to help a sick family member? • Education vs. Family. • I value honesty and compassion. When my roommate asks how she looks in her new outfit, should I tell her that she has hideous taste in clothes? • Honesty vs. Compassion Ideal Values vs. Real Values • Ideal Values: values you believe to be right and good but you don’t act on consistently. • Nutrition: I believe that it is right and good, but I don’t do it consistently. • Real Values: values you believe to be right and good and consistently act upon in your life. • Honesty: I believe in honesty and telling the truth, and I do it consistently no matter what. CHAPTER 2: ETHICS Ethics Important Dimension of Values • Ethics (or morals): standards of conduct that reflect what we consider to be right or wrong behavior. • Example: If you arrive home and notice that a cashier at a store gave you too much change, should you go back to the store and return the money? • This example is about your personal standards of right and wrong, or good and evil. • Your answer to this kind of ethical dilemma will reflect your value priorities. Ethics • When values concern right and wrong behavior, we call them morals. • Morals place words, actions, and ideas into good and bad categories. This is why we judge others more strongly on morals versus values. • When morals are codified into a system, we call them ethics. • Ethics are a more formal dimension of values that defines standard of right and wrong conduct. • Ethics are standards of conduct that reflect what we consider to be right or wrong behavior. • In ethical arguments, you define and evaluate an item then assess the value of its being. • Just because something is good, does this mean it’s right? • Ethical arguments must be expressed in ethical terms such as right vs. wrong and moral vs. immoral. Theories of Ethical Behavior • Libertarianism: the highest value is to promote the liberty of all. • It allows for one’s individual freedom. • It does not restrict freedom of others. • However, you cannot cross the line and impact someone else’s freedom. For example, if you are peacefully protesting, that is acceptable under Libertarianism. But if the riot turns violent and other people are impacted, that is where the line is crossed. • People who believe in this theory think “You have your personal freedom, I have mine, and no one should cross the line. This is the way it should be.” • Examples: • Freedom of the press • Freedom of speech and assembly Theories of Ethical Behavior • Utilitarianism: Action should be directed toward achieving the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. • This theory is similar to the question of “Do I save one person or save a thousand? • The main idea of this theory is to secure the greatest good for the greatest number. • yoo-til-i-tair-ee-uh-niz-uhm • Examples: • The tax system in the United States: The rich may not benefit from having to give up a greater portion of their income than the poor, but society as a whole benefits from this arrangement. • Ice cream at a party: I asked my friends what kind of ice cream they wanted for a party. 9 friends said vanilla, and 1 said chocolate. I got all vanilla because it was cheaper to buy in bulk. Theories of Ethical Behavior • Egalitarianism: The highest value is equality (justice and fairness). • The same opportunities should apply to all people. • We should treat others as we would want to be treated. • Example: • Discrimination is unethical (workplace, hiring). • Treatment in any case should be the same for all. • Education should be available to everyone. Theories of Ethical Behavior • Religious Values: Love God and oneself, and live your life based on the teachings of your religion. • One’s ethical behavior is based on religious teachings or behaviors. • Many people make choices and decisions based on the values and lessons in their religions. • Examples: • All people are created by God, therefore all should be treated with respect. • Conduct you behavior in a manner that will honor God. Theories of Ethical Behavior • • • • • Prima facie values: These are the core, foundational, and universal ethical principles that any society follows. Even though all people won’t follow or believe in the core values, the majority does. Universal ethics exist and are self-evident and obvious to rational individuals of every culture. These values make up the foundation of a society. Examples: Honesty, integrity, loyalty, fairness, responsibility, citizenship. CHAPTER 2: Rationalizations Rationalizations • In Chapter 2, the author tells us that using rationalizations in our thinking is not beneficial, even though we all do it. • When we rationalize our behavior, we are often trying to blame someone for our actions, cover up or hide the truth, put ourselves above another person, or make excuses for our actions. • Every time to rationalize your behavior, you are not thinking critically because you tend to cause more problems and get further away from solutions. • A critical thinker always takes a step back, analyzes a situation, gathers facts, and makes a logical decision. • Rationalizations are not productive, even though they might make you feel better about a situation. • These are in the chapter because they author wants us to be aware of rationalizations so we can avoid them in our daily lives. Types of Rationalizations 1. If It’s Necessary, It’s Ethical • Example: A woman steals formula for her baby because she doesn’t have money but needs to feed her baby. • Definition: If you must do something, you’ll do what ever it takes, even if it’s not legal. 2. If It’s Legal and Permissible, It’s Proper • Example: Gambling away your paycheck because gambling is legal. • Definition: If it’s legal, it’s ok. However, other people might question your actions because what you’re doing is not the norm. 3. I Was Just Doing It For You • Example: Not telling your friend she looks bad in her favorite dress in order to protect her feelings. • Definition: Not being honest with someone or withholding information from them to protect them and their feelings. 4. I’m Just Fighting Fire With Fire • Example: I hit my brother because he hit me first. • Definition: Doing something back to someone to get revenge. Types of Rationalizations 5. It Doesn’t Hurt Anyone • Example: Giving friends discounts at a store even if you aren’t supposed to. • Example: I can speed if there is no one around at 2 a.m. • Definition: Your actions are fine as long as no one is hurt physically, mentally, or emotionally. 6. Everyone’s Doing It • Example: Vaping • Definition: Doing something because you see others doing it. Doing something because it’s the norm or the trend. 7. It’s O.K. If I Don’t Gain Personally • Example: Helping someone finish a test even though they’re supposed to complete it alone, but you expect nothing in return. • Example: Donating clothes and toys to a children’s home but not getting a tax write-off. • Definition: Thinking something is fine to do, even if you don’t benefit. Types of Rationalizations 8. I’ve Got It Coming (I Deserve It) • Example: Calling in sick even though you’re not sick because you’ve worked hard. • Example: Eating 5 donuts on a cheat day because you know you’ve been working hard on your diet. • Definition: Thinking you deserve something because of your behavior. Positive karma (not negative karma). 9. I Can Still be Objective • Example: A coach starting their child over better players. • Example: A manager hiring a friend over someone they don’t know. • Definition: Saying you can be unbiased in a situation, but you know you can’t be. Chapter 6: Reasoning Errors Chapter 6 Overview • • • • • • In this section of notes, you will learn how to identify 14 different fallacies. In arguments, people use fallacies as reasons to support their conclusions. Unfortunately, all reasons containing fallacies have some sort of error, so it’s important to avoid using fallacies if the error weakens your argument. Fallacies may sound like good reasons, and they can be persuasive. However, sometimes fallacies weaken your argument, but sometimes. they can also help your argument. If you are going to use a fallacy, make sure it helps your argument. If other people use fallacies in their reasoning, it is up to you to decide how to interpret that information. Does the fallacy they’re using help or hurt their argument? Fallacies • Fallacies occur when people give reasons to support their beliefs, but there are errors in their reasoning. Two Types of Fallacies • • Inadequate Fallacies • If the argument is standing on a fallacy alone, then it is not enough to support the argument making it inadequate. You have to ask yourself if the fallacy is weakening the argument. Fallacies that Mislead • These fallacies are used to mislead other people who are listening in some way. You have to ask yourself if the fallacy is weakening the argument. Inadequate Fallacies • • • • • • • Faulty Analogy False Cause Ad Homenim Two Wrongs Make a Right Hasty Conclusion Straw Man Slippery Slope Faulty Analogies An accurate analogy: • A is to B as C is to D Two things being compared are similar in significant aspects, but they have major differences. • Example: We should have subways in Phoenix because they work well in New York City. • In this fallacy, two things are compared that are not very similar, which causes a faulty analogy. • Faulty analogies have similarities, but they are not 100% similar. Faulty Analogy Examples • • • "Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit in the head in order to make them work, so must employees.” “A book is a loaded gun in the house next door.” Texting and driving is the same thing as driving drunk. False Cause (Post Hoc) • Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc: “After this, therefore because of this” • • • • • People believe a first event causes a second event without reason, even though the events may not be related. This is superstitious reasoning. It’s playing the blame game. Example: “We lost the game because it rained.” Example: “Vaccines cause autism.” False Cause Format • • • • The form of the False Cause Fallacy can be expressed as follows: A occurred, then B occurred. Therefore, A caused B. When B is undesirable, this pattern is often extended in reverse. Avoiding A will prevent B. My teacher hates me… so I failed the class. A occurred, then B occurred. Therefore, A caused B. False Cause Example Ad Hominem (Attacking the Person) • • • This occurs when a person is attacked on a personal quality that is irrelevant to the argument or discussion. In a discussion, a person will attack another person when they have no other facts or evidence to present. Attacking the person on something superficial is very common. This occurs when a person wants to keep an argument or discussion going but no longer has any solid evidence or proof to present. • “I won’t vote for her for student council president because she looks funny!” • “She won’t make a good board member because she’s just a housewife!” • “He’ll make an awful president! Just look at the way he dresses!” Ad Hominem (Attacking the Person) Examples • • • • Trump called Bernie Sanders a “socialist whack job.” Trump called Ted Cruz a “maniac.” Trump has insulted Carly Fiorina’s (CEO of Hewlett-Packard) face, of all things, saying “Look at that face! Would anyone vote for that?” He presents no evidence, facts, or proof to counteract their arguments. He just insults them on a personal level. Two Wrongs Make A Right • • Someone rationalizes that one person or group’s action is justified because some other person or group’s action is just as bad or worse. Example: Yes, I was going 80 and speeding, but that other car was going at least 90. Why should I get in trouble if someone else did something worse than I did? So 80 miles per hour isn’t as bad as 90 miles per hour. Hasty Conclusion • • This occurs when people draw a conclusion on the basis of insufficient information. People often generalize and jump to conclusions, even though they don’t have enough information. • Rushing to pass judgment, developing a conclusion without enough information, or making an uninformed decision without solid evidence or proof are not good for critical thinking, but this is how Hasty Conclusions are formed. Hasty Conclusion Example Don’t draw conclusions on the basis of insufficient information. He’s bad news because he dresses like a punk! He’s a lawyer, so he must be a vulture Straw Man • • • This occurs when someone takes something another person says and completely distorts it. THIS HAPPENS IN DIALOGUE, MESSENGER APPS, AND/OR TEXTING THE MOST. However, a person can overhear a conversation by someone else, completely miss the point, and blow the whole thing out of proportion. • This fallacy takes a reasonable, moderate, and arguable position and turns it into an extreme position that is easier to refute. Straw Man Example Illegal immigrants take the jobs that citizens won’t take – they pay taxes and strengthen the economy. My opponent is telling us to open the borders completely and let everyone have free health care and education. Our country can’t afford that! Straw Man Examples Slippery Slope • • • • • This fallacy occurs when the consequences of a potential action are predicted but not supported. With Slippery Slope, you might hear someone say, “That escalated quickly” because the person jumps from A to Z quickly with little to no logic. Slippery Slope is similar to Hasty Conclusion, but Slippery Slope takes something to the extreme. Slippery Slope is the domino effect. It is prediction based on speculation. If one event occurs, others events will follow, usually in an uncontrollable way. Slippery Slope Example • • We have to stop the tuition increase! The next thing you know, they'll be charging $40,000 a semester! Slippery Slope takes something to the ultimate extreme. If a person’s argument sounds extreme, and illogical, they have an error in reasoning. Slippery Slope Example • Watch this funny video to understand Slippery Slope. Slippery Slope Example Fallacies that Mislead • • • • • • • Red Herring Ad Populum Appeal to Tradition Appeal to Pity False Dilemma Equivocation Begging the Question Red Herring • • • • • One person brings up topic A. The other person brings up topic B under the disguise of being relevant to topic A (when it really isn’t). If the second person is successful, topic A is abandoned (and now you are talking about topic B). People do this on purpose to distract your attention. THIS HAPPENS IN DIALOGUE, MESSENGER APPS, OR TEXTING. Red Herring Example • • • • Reporter: I’d like you to tell us how your marriage is going after the alleged affairs. Pro-Golfer: I’m going to share with you when I’ll be going back on tour. Reporter: When is the date of your return? The reporter completely gives up the topic of the affair and asks about the return date. • The golfer distracted the reporter. Ad Populum (Bandwagon) • • • This is also called Jumping on the Bandwagon. If everyone is doing it, then it is okay. I should do it, too. This is the same as the rationalization “Everyone’s Doing It” from Chapter 2. Bandwagon Example • If you want to be cool like Wolverine, you should drink milk. Everyone’s doing it. Appeal to Tradition • • • With this fallacy, people try to get you to conform to a tradition, or you try to get others to conform to a tradition. “We’ve always done it that way” so we are going to continue to do it that way. This is not always the best way to do things. Change is good. The reasons are not relevant to the claim. • All the men in our family have been lawyers, so you should be a lawyer. • On Thanksgiving, people are supposed to eat turkey, so we will eat turkey every year. Appeal to Tradition Example n This ad is telling to buy Hershey’s because they have been around since 1899. If they have been around for a long time, they must be good. Appeal to Pity • • • • • With this fallacy, someone wants you to follow a course of action due to compassion. This occurs when someone argues that others should follow a course of action or hold a certain belief for no other reason than that they should feel compassion for the irrelevant claims of the speaker. While this may be true, it is irrelevant to the claim. Example: You should go out with me, or I will be upset. Don’t let someone make you feel guilty for not doing something you don’t want to do. Stand up for yourself and try to come up with a better solution. Appeal to Pity Example • • "I should receive an 'A' in this class. If I don't get an 'A' in this class, I won't get the scholarship I need." False Dilemma • This occurs when someone presents someone else with only two extreme alternatives or choices with no possibilities in between. • This occurs when one person focuses on the two extremes instead of any other possible choices. • Don’t let people back you into a corner and provide you with only two options. List and discuss all possible options. False Dilemma Examples • "America - Love It Or Leave It.” The dilemma suggests that a "true patriot" must embrace everything ever done by America or become unAmerican. • President George W. Bush stated, in a speech about the War on Terror, that "Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists.” Equivocation • • • This occurs when someone uses a different meaning of a word already discussed in order to win a point. A word or phrase has two different meanings, and it is up to you to figure out both meanings. Format: • A statement is made using term X with one meaning. A rebuttal is made using term X with a second meaning. A conclusion is then drawn using term X with the second meaning. Equivocation Examples • • The sign said "fine for parking here,” and since it was fine, I parked there. Watch the video on Equivocation below. Click on the image below to play Begging the Question (1st Way) • • This form of begging the question is pretty effective because if someone makes a claim thy can’t support, you can ask a question or make a forceful statement that puts the burden of proof back on them. When the burden of proof is back on them, you leave it up to them to answer or respond, but they usually can’t or are thrown off guard. • • • How do you know that I am not able to do that? Show me that aliens don’t exist. See the examples on the last slide under #1. Begging the Question (2nd Way) • • • • This occurs when a person asks you a question, but you can’t answer “yes” or “no” because either answer is the wrong answer. Example: “Have you stopped stealing money from your job?” If you answer yes, you’re admitting to stealing. If you answer no, you’re admitting to stealing. Don’t let someone trick you into answering one of these questions. See the examples on the next slide under #2. Chapter 7: The Power Of Language Chapter 7 Notes • Watch the video below • The Power of Words Power of Language We are the only creatures who have created a system of symbols to write and convey thoughts and ideas. • We can use language to help or to hurt. Denotation • • • • • The dictionary meaning The specific object or action that a word • points • Refers Dog Desk • indicates Denotation is the literal meaning of a word. It is the dictionary definition. Connotation • • • Connotation refers to three interpretations. When people hear words and phrases, see advertisements, or encounter events, they can have have three different reactions: • Positive • Negative • Neutral Connotations are word meanings developed by society or individual people based on usage. Connotations are based on experiences and the way words are spoken out loud. Connotation How would you put these words in order from best sounding to worst sounding? Why? In the dictionary, they all have similar meanings, but they don’t mean the same in society. The way you put the words in order is not the same for everyone because of our experiences with the words. 1. childlike, youthful, childish, young 2. disabled, crippled, handicapped, retarded 3. relaxed, laid-back, lackadaisical, easy-going 4. ugly, hideous, repulsive, unappealing 5. cheap, frugal, miserly, economical 6. confident, secure, proud, egotistical Connotation How would you put these words in order from best sounding to worst sounding? Why? In the dictionary, they all have similar meanings, but they don’t mean the same in society. The way you put the words in order is not the same for everyone because of our experiences with the words. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Young, Immature, Juvenile, Youthful Inquisitive, Interested, Curious, Convivial Confident, Secure, Proud, Egotistical Lovely, Knockout, Beautiful, Stunning Talkative, Conversational, Chatty, Nosy Personal Connotations Birthday: You might love your birthday, be neutral toward it, or hate when it comes around. Cultural Connotation A cultural connotation is something everyone in a society knows about, whether they feel positive, neutral, or negative about it. It can be an event, a holiday, or a product. Examples: Nike, Coca Cola, and the Superbowl. Cultural connotation=emergency Cultural connotation=tragedy Reification • • Reification occurs when words become more powerful and influential than objective reality. Some people treat words as concrete realities • Name Brands vs. Generic Brands • • • Some people have to buy name brand because it makes them feel better to have the more well-known brand. Designer Label Clothes vs. Higher Quality non-label Someone called you “chubby” in fifth grade • Words stick with us, and sometimes, they influence our lives, moods, and day-to-day activities. • • Reification Example This is saying that if you want to be a man, you should buy the sneaker. The words “makes” and “man” could be powerful to some people, but honestly, it is just a type of shoe. Some people might really believe in the power of the words and feel the need to buy the shoes to feel a certain way about themselves. Self Fulfilling Prophecy • • • • • • • Have you ever made a prediction about your life that came true? You may not believe yourself to be a fortuneteller, but you’ve likely found that you can sometimes be surprisingly accurate in your predictions. For instance, you might predict that a project you are working on will turn out exceedingly well, and feel confident in your ability to foresee the future when your hard work pays off and your project is received positively. Alternatively, you might expect that a speech you have to give at a work event will go terribly, and thus you feel no surprise when you stutter, mumble, and frequently forget your next point while speaking. Although you could take these instances as evidence that you know yourself and your abilities quite well (and this can be true), you might not think about the effects your expectations have on your behavior. When our beliefs and expectations influence our behavior at the subconscious level, we are enacting what is known as a self-fulfilling prophecy. Self Fulfilling Prophecy • • Example This advertisement wants you to believe that if you buy these shoes, you will be able to run faster than anyone. Maybe that is true, and maybe it isn’t. However, if you believe it is true, it has a likelihood of becoming reality. Vagueness • • Vagueness happens when a word or phrase’s meaning is unclear. These meanings are unclear: • ‘Get clothes whiter than white’ • ‘It’s the real thing’ • ‘Help wanted’ Vagueness Example Just do what? Ambiguity • Ambiguity happens when a word or expression has two or more different meanings. • It is similar to equivocation. • Example: Headline of a newspaper: “Bill dies in House.” What are the two meanings? Ambiguity Example n What are the two definitions of “whales”? Vagueness and Ambiguity Difference • • If someone doesn't know what is meant by a phrase, then that phrase is vague. If someone doesn't know which of two or more specific meanings is intended, then it is ambiguous. Examples • • • • • “Dinner Special -- Turkey $2.35; Chicken or Beef $2.25; Children $2.00.” Ambiguous "Three-year-old teacher needed for pre-school.“ Ambiguous "Nurse needed for pre-school" • Vague (there are many different kinds of nurses: practical, registered, nanny, etc.) Ambiguity Example • • • When Barry Goldwater ran for president, his slogan was, "In your heart, you know he's right.“ In what way is that phrase ambiguous? • A. "In your heart" means "you feel" but it says "you know.“ • B. It says "you know," but it doesn't say how you know it. • C. "Right" here could mean either "correct" or "conservative.“ C is the correct answer. Doublespeak • Doublespeak is language used to lie or mislead while pretending to tell the truth • A. Euphemism • B. Jargon • C. Gobbledygook • If you say something is Doublespeak, you need to specify which type. A. Euphemism • • • Definition: The use of a less direct but more acceptable term to describe an event, person, or object. Many people are easily embarrassed, so they use euphemisms to make something negative sound positive, but the meanings are the same. Euphemisms make things sound better than they are, but the meanings are the same. • passed away instead of died • mobile living community instead of trailer park • downsized instead of fired • maintenance worker instead of janitor • pre-owned car instead of used car B. Jargon • • • • • Words that are used by a particular profession or group and are unknown to others or are difficult for others to understand. Jargon is language used in the workplace. At your job, what are words and phrases you hear and use that people outside of your job wouldn’t understand? Itemized Hospital Bill • Mucus Recovery System = Kleenex If you received this bill, you wouldn’t question “mucus recovery system” because of the jargon, but you would question why you are paying for Kleenex. C. Gobbledygook • • • Vague language used to confuse and overwhelm those who hear it. Gobbledygook can be nonsense, jargon, and/or pretentious speech. Example: In retrospect, the interrelation of system and/or subsystem technologies mandates staff-meeting-level attention to possible turn-key collaborative bidirectional logical relationship approaches. Consequently the product configuration is functionally equivalent and parallel to the synergistic effective web-readiness of the system and/or subsystem. Gobbledygook Example • • "My boyfriend isn't really serious about me, but he is serious anyway, and he seriously loves me.” All the words make sense individually, but why is this still confusing? Weasel Words • • • Weasel words are words companies use to make consumers believe a product could work for them, but products work differently for different people. Weasel words like “can,” “help,” or “might” do not guarantee anything 100%, so if a product doesn’t work for certain people, the weasel words already indicated the product might not work for everyone. Weasel words are words companies use to make a product seem like it will work, but weasel words are not direct, and they undermine a claim. Weasel Words • • If companies use words like “will” and the product doesn’t work, they could face backlash. Weasel words protect companies by saying something is not 100% guaranteed. If it doesn’t work for you, they are protected by the weasel words. Examples of Weasel Words (that don’t guarantee something 100%) • helps, can be, many, enriched, up to, virtually, can, might, may, could, possibly. • What are the most common weasel words? • “This cream will help prevent acne.” It doesn’t say it WILL prevent acne. • “You can save up to 50% at the sale.” Saving 50% is not guaranteed because it says “up to.” Weasel Words Example Virtually The ad says Cascade gets dishes “virtually spotless.” The advertiser hopes we remember the word “spotless” and forget the word “virtually.” Virtually means “almost,” so this ad says you will get (almost) spotless dishes. Weasel Words Example n Why is the word “helps” used in this advertisement? Why can’t the company say “Will stop gas?” If companies use words like “will” and the product doesn’t work, they could face backlash. Weasel words protect companies by saying something is not 100% guaranteed. If it doesn’t work for you, they are protected by the weasel words.

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