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Requirement: Answer ONLY TWO questions

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Requirement:

Answer ONLY TWO questions. Pick TWO questions blow. Your answers TOGETHER must be no less than 1500 words and no more than 2000 words not include citations. MLA format. Please cited the references you use, make a citation page. If you use any words and quotes online or the course readings attached below, please cited them, it’s about plagiarism. Some course readings attached below, please use them as a reference

 

Please remember it’s a two separate question essays.

Question 1

Consider this comment:

"U.S. immigration policy, from the start, has been based primarily on national self-interest, whether defined in economic, security or demographic terms. What is missing is an ethical dimension that asks whether a particular policy is the right thing to do."

Do you agree with the description of U.S. law and policy—that it has been primarily based on notions of national self-interest? To what extent do you believe that current policy falls short on ethical grounds? Provide three examples drawn from the readings or class discussion.

Question 2

U.S. immigration law imposes numerical limits on various categories for admission to the United States as a permanent resident, including categories for some relatives of US citizens, immediate family members of permanent residents, employment-based visas, diversity visas and refugee admissions. More people would like to immigrate to the United States each year than these limits permit. Should there be any limits on the number of persons who can enter under these categories? If so, do the current numerical limits need adjustment (either up or down)?

Question 3

Naomi Paik, in the article assigned for class, writes:

"Beyond its grounded interventions of non-cooperation and safe harbour, sanctuary already performs conceptual work that can undermine the criminalization of migrants and other vulnerable peoples. Whether through official policies or popular struggle, sanctuary seeks to secure local commitments to all people living in a given community, thereby enacting a notion of citizenship that is not beholden to the sovereignty of the nation-state."

Please comment. What would citizenship “not beholden to the sovereignty of the nation-state” look like? What would immigration law, and enforcement of immigration law, look like in such a world? Do you support such a notion of citizenship? Why or why not?

Question 4

Apprehensions at the U.S. southwest border of persons entering without authorization have risen dramatically over the past several months, leading politicians and the press to label the situation a “crisis.” President Biden has announced an end to the “Migrant Protection Protocols” (“remain in Mexico” policy) and has pledged to undertake efforts to ameliorate the “root causes” of undocumented migration to the United States. But he has kept in place the Trump Administration’s COVID regulations that provide for the “expulsion” of all persons arriving at the border without proper documentation (Biden has made an exception for unaccompanied non-citizen children), and he has sought assistance from the governments of Mexico and Central American countries in preventing the flow of migrants moving north. What set of policies would you recommend regarding Central American migrants?US Undocumented Population Continued to Fall from 2016 to 2017,... https://cmsny.org/publications/essay-2017-undocumented-and-overs... (https://cmsny.org/) US Undocumented Population Continued to Fall from 2016 to 2017, and Visa Overstays Significantly Exceeded Illegal Crossings for the Seventh Consecutive Year Robert Warren Center for Migration Studies Introduction This report presents estimates of the US undocumented population for 2017 derived by the Center for Migration Studies of New York (CMS). It focuses on the steep decline in the undocumented population from Mexico since 2010. While the president has focused the nation’s attention on the border wall, half a million[1] US undocumented residents from Mexico left[2] the undocumented population in 2016 alone, more than three times the number that arrived that year, leading to an overall decrease of nearly 400,000 undocumented residents from Mexico from 2016 to 2017. From 2010 to 2017, the undocumented population from Mexico fell by a remarkable 1.3 million. For the past 10 years, the primary mode of entry to the 1 of 12 1/4/21, 12:02 PM US Undocumented Population Continued to Fall from 2016 to 2017,... https://cmsny.org/publications/essay-2017-undocumented-and-overs... undocumented population has been to overstay temporary visas. This report provides estimates of the number of noncitizens who overstayed temporary visas and those who entered without inspection (EWIs) in 2016 by the top five countries of origin. Summary of Findings The US undocumented population from Mexico fell by almost 400,000 in 2017. In 2017, for the first time, the population from Mexico constituted less than one half of the total undocumented population. Since 2010, the undocumented population from Mexico has declined by 1.3 million. In California, the undocumented population from Mexico has declined by 26 percent since 2010, falling from 2.0 to 1.5 million; it also dropped by 50 percent in Alabama, and by one third in Georgia, New York, and New Mexico. The undocumented population from Venezuela grew rapidly after 2013, increasing from 60,000 to 145,000 in just four years. Visa overstays have significantly exceeded illegal border crossings during each of the last seven years. Mexico was the leading country for overstays in 2017, 2 of 12 1/4/21, 12:02 PM US Undocumented Population Continued to Fall from 2016 to 2017,... https://cmsny.org/publications/essay-2017-undocumented-and-overs... with about twice as many as India or China. The estimates presented here were derived by CMS based on information collected in the Census Bureau’s annual American Community Survey (ACS). The procedures used to derive detailed estimates of the undocumented population are described in Warren (2014). CMS used its annual estimates of the undocumented population for 2010 to 2017 — by state of residence, country of origin, and year of entry — to compile the information described here. Additional methodological details appear as footnotes or as notes in the tables. Undocumented Population Change since 2010 As shown in Figure 1, the total undocumented population declined by about one million from 2010 to 2017. The undocumented population from the rest of the world (not Mexico) increased by about 250,000 from 2010 to 2017. In Figure 1, the population increase for all other countries for 2017 is mostly the result of increases from India (100,000) and Venezuela (45,000). The right panel of Figure 1 reveals a historic precedent: In 2017, for the first time, the population from Mexico constituted less than one half of the total undocumented population. 3 of 12 1/4/21, 12:02 PM US Undocumented Population Continued to Fall from 2016 to 2017,... https://cmsny.org/publications/essay-2017-undocumented-and-overs... The undocumented population from Mexico fell faster than the total population, dropping by 1.3 million during the period, spurred by more departures from this population than visa overstays or illegal entries (Figure 2). The decline in the undocumented population from Mexico from 2010 to 2017 occurred nationwide. Table 1 shows 11 states that had 50,000 or more undocumented residents from Mexico in 2017 and had 20 percent or higher declines in the population from Mexico. The 4 of 12 1/4/21, 12:02 PM US Undocumented Population Continued to Fall from 2016 to 2017,... https://cmsny.org/publications/essay-2017-undocumented-and-overs... population in California fell by 26 percent, from 2.0 million in 2010 to 1.5 million in 2017. The population in Alabama (not shown) dropped by half, and the population in Georgia, New York, and New Mexico by one third (Table 1). Population Change, by Country, 2010 to 2017 Table 2 shows estimates of the overall undocumented population and the change from 2010 to 2017 for the top 15 countries in 2017. The population from India increased by 265,000, or 72 percent, from 2010 to 2017. The population from Venezuela more than doubled, from 65,000 in 2010 to 145,000 in 2017, with all of the growth occurring from 2014 to 2017. Countries with the largest population declines during this period (in addition to Mexico) were: Philippines (-70,000), Ecuador 5 of 12 1/4/21, 12:02 PM US Undocumented Population Continued to Fall from 2016 to 2017,... https://cmsny.org/publications/essay-2017-undocumented-and-overs... (-45,000), and Korea (-40,000) (Table 2). Mode of Entry Arriving by air and overstaying temporary visas has been the primary way of entering the US undocumented population over the entire seven-year period covered by this report. Table 3 shows estimates of undocumented arrivals in 2016 by country of origin and mode of entry for the top five countries of origin. Of the estimated 515,000 arrivals in 2016, a total of 320,000, or 62 percent, were overstays and 190,000, or 38 percent, were EWIs. The estimates are based on CMS estimates of undocumented arrivals by year of entry for 2016 and 6 of 12 1/4/21, 12:02 PM US Undocumented Population Continued to Fall from 2016 to 2017,... https://cmsny.org/publications/essay-2017-undocumented-and-overs... 2017 by country of origin, and US Department of Homeland Security estimates of overstays for Mexico, Central American countries, and the Dominican Republic in 2017.[3] Mexico was the leading country for overstays in 2016, about twice the number from India, China, and Venezuela (Table 3). Overstays accounted for approximately one third of all undocumented arrivals from Mexico in 2016. The appearance of Venezuela as a leading country of overstays in Table 3 might be surprising. However, the undocumented population from Venezuela (almost all overstays) increased sharply after 2013, most likely because of the political and economic turmoil in that country (CMS 2017). Discussion The estimates shown here have important policy implications. The varied rates of change for many of the 7 of 12 1/4/21, 12:02 PM US Undocumented Population Continued to Fall from 2016 to 2017,... https://cmsny.org/publications/essay-2017-undocumented-and-overs... countries shown here — the sustained drop in the population from Mexico, the upsurge from Venezuela after 2013, the continuing increase from India even as the populations from other Asian sending countries declined — indicate that the United States needs a more nuanced and evidence-based response to undocumented migration. The downward undocumented population trends for Nicaragua, Ecuador, Peru, Poland, and Korea demonstrate that undocumented migrants will return to their home countries, even some in difficult conditions. A serious commitment to improving conditions in the Northern Triangle states of Central America, Venezuela, and other countries could significantly reduce the US undocumented population. Since more than one half of all US undocumented residents arrive by air, visa-issuing posts have become the real frontline deterrent to undocumented migration. This report suggests that more attention and resources should be given to that crucial mission of the US Department of State. The sudden increase in the undocumented population (that is, overstays) from Venezuela after 2013 illustrates this point. In addition, Congress and the administration should pursue legislation to legalize populations like the DREAM-Act eligible, long-term 8 of 12 1/4/21, 12:02 PM US Undocumented Population Continued to Fall from 2016 to 2017,... https://cmsny.org/publications/essay-2017-undocumented-and-overs... beneficiaries of Temporary Protected Status (TPS), and “intending immigrants” with a recognized relationship with a US citizen or lawful permanent resident that would qualify them for a family-based visa (Kerwin, Alulema, and Nicholson 2018). The disparity between current public discourse and the empirical data presented here obscures the fact that tremendous progress has been made in reducing undocumented immigration since 2000. It is time to build on that success by constructing an immigration reform package that upholds the rule of law while embracing the values that have truly made America great. [1] In 2016, the US undocumented population from Mexico that arrived before 2016 was 5.6 million; one year later, in 2017, the number that arrived before 2016 had dropped to 5.1 million, indicating that half a million had left the undocumented population from Mexico. [2] Undocumented residents leave the population by being removed, emigrating voluntarily, adjusting to permanent legal status, or dying. [3] The percentage of undocumented to total arrivals for 9 of 12 1/4/21, 12:02 PM US Undocumented Population Continued to Fall from 2016 to 2017,... https://cmsny.org/publications/essay-2017-undocumented-and-overs... Mexico (34.7 percent), El Salvador (11.0 percent), Guatemala (24.9 percent), Honduras (20.4 percent), Nicaragua (56.3 percent), and Dominican Republic (54.4 percent) are from Table A-1 of Warren (2017). Estimation of overstays is also discussed in Warren and Kerwin (2017). REFERENCES CMS (Center for Migration Studies). 2017. “Venezuela in Crisis: the Plight of Venezuelan Refugees.” New York: CMS. https://cmsny.org/venezuela-in-crisis/ . Kerwin, Donald, Daniela Alulema, and Mike Nicholson. 2018. “Communities in Crisis: Interior Removals and their Human Consequences.” Journal on Migration and Human Security 6(4): 225-41. https://doi.org/10.1177 /2331502418820066 . Warren, Robert. 2014. “Democratizing Data about Unauthorized Residents in the United States: Estimates and Public-use Data, 2010 to 2013.” Journal on Migration and Human Security 2(4): 305-28. 10 of 12 1/4/21, 12:02 PM US Undocumented Population Continued to Fall from 2016 to 2017,... https://cmsny.org/publications/essay-2017-undocumented-and-overs... https://doi.org/10.1177/233150241400200403 . ———. 2017. “DHS Overestimates Visa Overstays for 2016; Overstay Population Growth Near Zero During the Year.” Journal on Migration and Human Security 5(4): 768-79. https://doi.org/10.1177 /233150241700500403 . Warren, Robert, and Donald Kerwin. 2017. “The 2,000 Mile Wall in Search of a Purpose: Since 2007 Visa Overstays have Outnumbered Undocumented Border Crossers by a Half Million.” Journal on Migration and Human Security 5(1): 124-36. https://doi.org/10.1177 /233150241700500107. 2017 ESTIMATES Check out the newly released 2017 estimates for the unauthorized and eligible-to-naturalize populations in the United States at data.cmsny.org 11 of 12 1/4/21, 12:02 PM US Undocumented Population Continued to Fall from 2016 to 2017,... https://cmsny.org/publications/essay-2017-undocumented-and-overs... . 12 of 12 1/4/21, 12:02 PM Migration Narratives 1. Nation of immigrants 1. Restrictionist/national sovereignty/Deportation Nation 1. Settler c0lonialism 1. Mobility Legal Immigration to the U.S. Family-based and Labor-based Numbers and Categories US Immigration Law and Policy Spring 2021 Legal Immigration to the US Immigrant: noncitizen authorized to become lawful permanent resident (LPR) of the United States ? LPR = green card holders Nonimmigrant: noncitizen admitted to the US for a temporary stay Number of foreign-born living in the US in 2018: approx. 45 million 50 % are naturalized US citizens; 25% are lawful permanent residents; 25% are undocumented migrants Legal Immigration in the US Legal Immigration to the US Slightly more than 1 million immigrants are granted lawful permanent residence annually > Just over half are already in the United States and adjusting from temporary status > Family-based immigration comprises about 2/3 of the annual total New Lawful Permanent Residents by Region and Country of Birth: Fiscal Years 2017-2019 New Lawful Permanent Residents by Region and Country of Birth: Fiscal Years 2017-2019 Legal Permanent Residents (aka Green Card holders) Green-card holders are permitted: ? To live and work in the U.S. indefinitely > As long as they do not commit a crime or some other post-entry act that makes them deportable ? To join the Armed Forces ? To apply for U.S. citizenship after five years, or after three if married to a U.S. citizen ? Be eligible for most federal benefits after 5 yrs Categories of Legal Immigration 1) Family-sponsored (non-quota and quota) 2) Employment-based 3) Diversity 4) Humanitarian admissions Legal Immigration in the US New Lawful Permanent Residents by Major Class of Admission: Fiscal Year 2017 to 2019 Family-Based Immigration Admissions of immediate relatives of US citizens is numerically unlimited > Spouses, children, and parents > Approx. half-million admissions per year Admissions of family-sponsored preference categories are capped at 226,000 slots per year 1. 2. 3. 4. Unmarried sons and daughters (> 21) of US citizens Spouses and unmarried children of permanent residents Married sons and daughters of US citizens Brothers and sisters of US citizens if citizens is 21 or older “Chain Migration” Immigrant → spouse and unmarried children ( 21 [1st pref.] → sibling [4th preference] → sibling’s spouse and children → all naturalize → sibling’s spouse’s parents [non-quota] → parents’ unmarried children [2d preference] Labor-Based Immigration Quotas Admissions are capped at about 140,000 per year Workers’ family members are included in this cap > Approx. only half of the 140,000 slots go to workers themselves Labor-Based Immigration Most employment based immigrants enter through five discrete channels: 1. “Persons of extraordinary ability” who can document high-level accomplishments in their field, a tough standard for most workers to meet, particularly early in their careers 2. Professionals with advanced graduate degrees or exceptional ability 3. Professionals, skilled workers (those with at least a two-year college degree), and unskilled workers (10,000 green cards are allocated yearly) 4. Certain special immigrants who meet U.S. national interests 5. Immigrant investors, who invest at least $1.8 million (or $900,000 in rural or high unemployment areas). Diversity Immigrants Lottery system; over 14 million people apply in 2018 Approx. 50,000 individuals chosen per year Applicants must meet threshold requirements: education or work experience, medical and security checks Natives of about 15 to 20 countries that already send a high number of immigrants are not eligible; low admission states given priority Top “winning” countries (>1500): Albania, Algeria, Armenia, Australia, Dem Rep Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia,Iran, Liberia, Nepal, Russia, Sierra Leone, Togo, Turkey, Ukraine, Uzbekistan Persons Obtaining Green Card in 2019 Family-based Immediate relatives of US citizens: 505,765 [Spouses: 304,333; Kids: 61,303; Parents: 140,128] Family-sponsored preferences: 204,139 Employment-based: 139,458 Diversity: 43,463 Refugees: 80,908 Asylees: 26,003 Others: 32,013 GRAND TOTAL: 1,031,765 Waiting Time for Admission via Immigrant Preferences People who are now receiving their Visas have applied in: F1--unmarried sons and daughters of US citizens Sept 2014 F2A--spouses and children of permanent residents Current F2B--unmarried sons and daughters, 21 years of age or older, of permanent residents July 2015 F3--married sons and daughters of US citizens July 2008 F4--brothers and sisters of adult US citizens Oct 2006 All categories for employment-based preferences No waiting time Waiting Time for Family-Based Immigration--4th preference (Siblings of US Citizens) People who are now receiving their Visas have applied in: Mexico China July 1998 Feb 2002 Philippines India Oct 2006 March 2005 Waiting Time for Labor-Based Immigration--2d preference People who are now receiving their Visas have applied in: Mexico China Current Current Philippines India Oct 2016 Oct 2009 Non-immigrant admissions--major categories 2019 Temporary visitors for pleasure (tourist): 43,968,625 [+19M visa waiver] Temporary visitors for business: 5,853,592 [+3M visa waiver] Students: 1,907,176 Exchange visitors: 620,479 Temporary workers and families: 4,106,324 [H1B = 601,594 / H2A = 442,822 / TN = 725,929 / spouses and children = 337,086] Total non-immigrant admissions 2019: 81,563,139 (does not include short-term visitors from Mexico and Canada--many tens of millions) H-1B Workers and Students 2019 Countries that have the most H-1B workers: [57.9%] [18.3%] India China *Initial employment Countries that send the most students to the United States: [34.6 %] China [18.0%] [4.6 %] [2.9 %] India South Korea Saudi Arabia Non-Immigrant Admission: H-1B Visa ? 85% of employment-based immigrants adjust to lawful permanent residence from a temporary worker or student visa within the United States ? Difficulty of finding an employer sponsor while abroad ? Strong demand by H-1B workers and their employers for permanent immigration Biden proposals on legal immigration: US Citizenship Act of 2021 ? Keep families together. “The bill reforms the family-based immigration system by clearing backlogs, recapturing unused visas, eliminating lengthy wait times, and increasing per-country visa caps. . . . The bill further supports familes by more explicitly including permanent partnerships and eliminating discrimination facing LGBTQ+ families. . . . Lastly, the bill allows immigrants with approved family-sponsorship petitions to join family in the United States on a temporary basis while they wait for green cards to become available. ? Embrace diversity. The bill includes the NO BAN Act that prohibits discrimination based on religion and limits presidential authority to issue future bans. The bill also increases Diversity Visas to 80,000 from 55,000. ? Grow our economy. This bill clears employment-based visa backlogs, recaptures unused visas, reduces lengthy wait times, and eliminates per-country visa caps. The bill makes it easier for graduates of U.S. universities with advanced STEM degrees to stay in the United States; improves access to green cards for workers in lower-wage sectors; and eliminates other unnecessary hurdles for employment-based green cards. The bill provides dependents of H-1B visa holders work authorization, and children are prevented from “aging out” of the system. The bill also creates a pilot program to stimulate regional economic development, gives DHS the authority to adjust green cards based on macroeconomic conditions, and incentivizes higher wages for nonimmigrant, high-skilled visas to prevent unfair competition with American workers. MORE ? MAIN NEWS IN THE NUMBERS JANUARY 31, 2019 Majority of Americans continue to say immigrants strengthen the U.S. BY BRADLEY JONES The American public’s views of the impact immigrants have on the country remain largely positive – and deeply partisan. As in recent years, a majority (62%) say immigrants strengthen the country because of their hard work and talents. Just 28% say immigrants are a burden on the country because they take jobs, housing and health care, according to a new survey by Pew Research Center. These attitudes have changed little in the past few years, but they are very different from a quarter-century ago. In 1994, attitudes were nearly the reverse of what they are today: 63% of Americans said immigrants burdened the country and 31% said they strengthened it. An estimated 45.1 million immigrants were living in the U.S. in 2016, accounting for 13.9% of the nation’s population. Most (76%) are in the country legally. Republicans and Democrats have never been further apart in their views of immigrants than they are currently. Democrats and those who lean to the Democratic Party overwhelmingly say immigrants are a strength to the nation (83% say this); just 11% say immigrants burden the United States. Among Republicans and Republican-leaning independents, 38% say immigrants strengthen the country, while nearly half (49%) say they burden it. There also are sizable generational differences in opinions about immigrants. Threequarters of Millennials (75%) say immigrants strengthen rather than burden the U.S. That compares with 63% of Gen Xers, 52% of Baby Boomers and 44% in the Silent Generation. In 1994, roughly comparable shares of Gen Xers, Boomers and Silents expressed positive views of immigrants. Generational differences are evident in both parties but are particularly stark among Republicans. More than half of Millennial Republicans (58%) say immigrants strengthen the country, compared with just 36% of Gen Xer Republicans and even smaller shares among older GOP generations. Among Democrats, there are only modest generational differences in these views, with no fewer than seven-in-ten of those in all generations saying this, including nearly nine-in-ten Millennial (88%) and Gen Xer (87%) Democrats. Note: See full topline results and methodology. Topics: Immigration Attitudes, Immigration Bradley Jones is a research associate focusing on politics at Pew Research Center. POSTS BIO TWITTER EMAIL MAKE A F I N A NC I A L C O N T R IBUTION T O SUP P O R T O U R W O R K DONATE ABOUT FACT TANK Real-time analysis and news about data from Pew Research Center writers and social scientists. Twitter RSS Archive RELAT ED U.S. POLITICS APR IL 15, 2016 Americans’ views of immigrants marked by widening partisan, generational divides U.S. POLITICS F EBRUARY 4, 2019 State of the Union 2019: How Americans see major national issues F ACT TANK APR IL 4, 2013 Democrats See Immigrants as a Strength for the U.S., Republicans View Them as a Burden F ACT TANK OCTOBER 7, 2016 Americans less concerned than a decade ago over immigrants’ impact on workforce F ACT TANK F EBRUARY 4, 2015 50 years later, Americans give thumbs-up to immigration law that changed the nation POPULAR ON FACT T ANK F ACT TANK JANUARY 17, 2019 Defining generations: Where Millennials end and Generation Z begins F ACT TANK SEPTEMBER 6, 2018 Are you in the American middle class? Find out with our income calculator F ACT TANK NOVEMBER 28, 2018 5 facts about illegal immigration in the U.S. F ACT TANK NOVEMBER 30, 2018 Key findings about U.S. immigrants F ACT TANK APR IL 5, 2017 Christians remain world’s largest religious group, but they are declining in Europe Vital to the U.S. COVID-19 Response, Disproportionately Vulnerable MARCH 2020 BY JULIA GELATT Executive Summary With the COVID-19 virus spreading rapidly within the United States, workers in several key industries are at the frontlines of keeping U.S. residents healthy, safe, and fed. This includes not only doctors and nurses, but also the custodians who are cleaning hospital rooms, checkout clerks at grocery stores and pharmacies, scientists racing to develop treatments and a vaccine, and the people who grow, harvest, and transport food across the country. Immigrant workers are over-represented in a number of these occupations that are vital in the fight against the coronavirus. While the foreign born represented 17 percent of the 156 million civilians working in 2018, they accounted for larger shares in some frontline occupations: 29 percent of physicians, 38 percent of home health aides, and 23 percent of retail-store pharmacists, for example. Immigrant workers are also over-represented in some of the non-frontline industries that are being devastated as more people follow social distancing guidelines and more states and cities issue shelter-in-place orders. Travel restrictions, orders limiting the operation or mandating the shutdown of restaurants and bars, and the closure of businesses deemed nonessential have already led to mass lay- offs. In just the first week of serious social distancing measures across the country, some 3.3 million new unemployment claims were filed—a rate that while unprecedented in U.S. history is likely only the tip of the iceberg.1 Immigrant workers are over-represented in many of the hardest-hit industries: hotels and restaurants, cleaning services for now-shuttered office buildings, and personal services such as in-home child care and hair and nail salons. The economic pain brought by this sudden and dramatic economic contraction will bring hardship to millions of Americans in the coming weeks and months. For many immigrant workers, the hardship will be exacerbated by limited access to safety-net systems and to federal relief, both for those who are legally present and those who are unauthorized. The Migration Policy Institute (MPI) estimates 6 million foreign-born workers are employed in vital, frontline industries; another 6 million work in some of the industries hardest hit by the fight against COVID-19.2 The first section of this fact sheet reviews the roles immigrant workers serve in industries at the frontlines of the COVID-19 response. The second section discusses the jobs immigrant workers fill within industries that are laying off large numbers of workers. FACT SHEET Immigrant Workers IMMIGRANT WORKERS: VITAL TO THE U.S. COVID-19 RESPONSE, DISPROPORTIONATELY VULNERABLE 1 Immigrant Workers in Industries Vital to Pandemic Response Immigrant workers (meaning those who were born outside the United States, regardless of whether they have since become naturalized citizens, are legal permanent residents, lack legal status, or are temporary workers) make up about 17 percent of civilians working.3 But they are over-represented in some of the industries that are vital to the coronavirus response—comprising 22 percent of scientific researchers, some of whom may be working on treatments and a vaccine, and 34 percent of those providing vital transportation within urban centers. And they work at high rates within some of the occupations within the health-care field. Overall, the Migration Policy Institute (MPI) finds that 6 million foreign-born workers make up 19 percent of the U.S. workers in such frontline industries. The section below details the occupations filled by immigrant workers within some of these broad industries. A. Health Care Within health-care and social service industries, immigrant workers make up disproportionate shares of those in certain occupations. For example, the foreign born comprise 29 percent of physicians, 22 percent of nursing assistants, 29 percent of housekeepers, and 24 percent of janitors and building cleaners in the health-care industry.4 They are also 38 percent of home health aides and 25 percent of personal care aides, who care for aging and disabled patients in their homes. Such workers must place their own health at risk to travel to and visit their clients amid the coronavirus outbreak. TABLE 1 Workers in Industries Vital to the COVID-19 Response, 2018 All Workers Foreign-Born Workers Number Health Care and Social Services Share 18,721,000 3,099,000 17% Essential Retail and Wholesale: Groceries, pharmacies, and gas stations 5,196,000 924,000 18% Manufacturing: Food, medicine, soap/cleaning agents 2,703,000 695,000 26% Transportation: Truck, rail, and water 2,228,000 385,000 17% Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Hunting 1,957,000 536,000 27% Transportation: Bus, metro, and taxi drivers 1,110,000 380,000 34% Postal Service 690,000 93,000 13% Scientific Research and Development 671,000 146,000 22% 33,277,000 6,259,000 19% 155,716,000 27,124,000 17% Total Workers in Industries Vital to the COVID-19 Response Total Civilian Workforce Source: Migration Policy Institute (MPI) tabulations of the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2018 American Community Survey (ACS), accessed March 19, 2020, through Steven Ruggles, Sarah Flood, Ronald Goeken, Josiah Grover, Erin Meyer, Jose Pacas, and Matthew Sobek, “IPUMS USA: Version 10.0 [dataset].” MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 2 IMMIGRANT WORKERS: VITAL TO THE U.S. COVID-19 RESPONSE, DISPROPORTIONATELY VULNERABLE TABLE 2 Ten Largest Occupations in the Health-Care and Social Services Industries, 2018 All Workers Foreign-Born Workers Number Share Registered Nurses 2,985,000 472,000 16% Nursing Assistants 1,363,000 301,000 22% Personal Care Aides 1,138,000 289,000 25% Licensed Practical and Licensed Vocational Nurses 815,000 124,000 15% Physicians 808,000 233,000 29% Medical and Health Services Managers 648,000 89,000 14% Medical Assistants 497,000 78,000 16% Home Health Aides 476,000 182,000 38% Social Workers, not otherwise classified 425,000 41,000 10% Receptionists and Information Clerks 410,000 45,000 11% 18,721,000 3,099,000 17% All Workers in Health-Care and Social Services Note: Tables 2-5 and 7-9 list the number of workers by occupation within a given industry. Many occupations span several industries, so the number listed for an occupation within one industry does not represent the full number of workers in that occupation across the U.S. workforce. Source: MPI tabulation of the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2018 ACS, accessed March 19, 2020 through IPUMS. B. Essential Retail and Wholesale: Grocery Stores, Pharmacies, and Food Wholesalers Immigrants represent large shares of the workers who are keeping essential businesses such as grocery stores and pharmacies open amid the crisis. These retail workers have faced long, stressful shifts as Americans stock up on food and medicine, quickly emptying store shelves. And retail workers are often in close contact with large numbers of customers, placing them at risk of contracting COVID-19 themselves. Within essential retail businesses, immi- grant workers form particularly high shares of pharmacists (23 percent), butchers and meat processors (23 percent), and drivers (21 percent). Foreign-born workers are also key in the food wholesale process, comprising 68 percent of those who grade and sort agricultural products and 42 percent of food packers and packagers. Immigrants represent large shares of the workers who are keeping essential businesses such as grocery stores and pharmacies open amid the crisis. MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 3 IMMIGRANT WORKERS: VITAL TO THE U.S. COVID-19 RESPONSE, DISPROPORTIONATELY VULNERABLE TABLE 3 Ten Largest Occupations in Frontline Retail and Wholesale Industries, 2018 All Workers Foreign-Born Workers Number Cashiers Share 1,122,000 182,000 16% First-Line Supervisors of Retail Sales Workers 685,000 112,000 16% Stockers and Order Fillers 407,000 55,000 13% Manual Laborers and Freight, Stock, and Material Movers 355,000 53,000 15% Pharmacy Technicians 271,000 36,000 13% Customer Service Representatives 209,000 29,000 14% Driver/Sales Workers and Truck Drivers 197,000 41,000 21% Pharmacists 188,000 43,000 23% Retail Salespersons 130,000 23,000 17% Butchers and Other Meat, Poultry, and Fish Processing Workers 121,000 27,000 23% 5,196,000 924,000 18% All Workers in Essential Retail Note: Tables 2-5 and 7-9 list the number of workers by occupation within a given industry. Many occupations span several industries, so the number listed for an occupation within one industry does not represent the full number of workers in that occupation across the U.S. workforce. For example, “Manual Laborers and Freight, Stock, and Material Movers,” listed in this table, also appears in tables 4 and 9, which cover manufacturing and building services industries, respectively. Source: MPI tabulation of the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2018 ACS accessed on March 19, 2020 through IPUMS. C. Manufacturing Immigrants represent 26 percent of the workers who manufacture food, medicine, and soap/cleaning In addition to food, U.S. residents are also amassing supplies of soap and other cleaning solutions to keep their hands and environments virus-free, and are stockpiling medicines to treat ongoing health conditions as well as the symptoms of COVID-19. supplies. In these industries, they are 50 percent of hand packers and packagers, 42 percent of operators running packing and filling machines, 39 percent of other food processing workers, and 38 percent of bakers. MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 4 IMMIGRANT WORKERS: VITAL TO THE U.S. COVID-19 RESPONSE, DISPROPORTIONATELY VULNERABLE TABLE 4 Ten Largest Occupations in Essential Retail and Wholesale Industries, 2018 All Workers Foreign-Born Workers Number Share Packaging and Filling Machine Operators and Tenders 180,000 75,000 42% Managers, not otherwise classified 146,000 26,000 18% Food Processing Workers, All Other 138,000 54,000 39% First-Line Supervisors of Production and Operating Workers 118,000 28,000 23% Manual Laborers and Freight, Stock, and Material Movers 117,000 32,000 27% Miscellaneous Production Workers, including Equipment Operators and Tenders 110,000 30,000 27% Bakers 100,000 38,000 38% Sales Representatives, Wholesale and Manufacturing 91,000 10,000 10% Driver/Sales Workers and Truck Drivers 81,000 15,000 18% Packers and Packagers, Manual 80,000 40,000 50% 2,703,000 695,000 26% All Workers in Manufacturing of Food, Medicine, and Soap/Cleaning Agents Source: MPI tabulation of the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2018 ACS accessed on March 19, 2020 through IPUMS. D. Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Hunting Immigrants are, of course, a very large part of the workforce in the agricultural sector responsible for planting, growing, raising, harvesting, and process- ing the country’s food. The foreign born account for 27 percent of all workers in agricultural, forestry, fishing, and hunting industries. They are 73 percent of hand packers and packagers, 62 percent of agricultural graders and sorters, and 32 percent of supervisors. MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 5 IMMIGRANT WORKERS: VITAL TO THE U.S. COVID-19 RESPONSE, DISPROPORTIONATELY VULNERABLE TABLE 5 Ten Largest Occupations in Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Hunting Industries, 2018 All Workers Foreign-Born Workers Number Share Agricultural Workers, not otherwise classified 752,000 364,000 48% Farmers, Ranchers, and (not otherwise classified) Agricultural Managers 554,000 36,000 6% First-Line Supervisors of Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Workers 68,000 21,000 32% Driver/Sales Workers and Truck Drivers 56,000 10,000 18% Logging Workers 41,000 2,000 5% Fishing and Hunting Workers 32,000 5,000 16% Graders and Sorters, Agricultural Products 22,000 14,000 62% Animal Caretakers 22,000 3,000 12% Secretaries and Administrative Assistants, except Legal, Medical, and Executive 18,000 2,000 10% Miscellaneous Production Workers, including Equipment Operators and Tenders 17,000 4,000 21% 1,957,000 536,000 27% All Workers in Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Hunting Industries Source: MPI tabulation of the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2018 ACS accessed on March 19, 2020 through IPUMS. 2 Immigrant Representation in Hard-Hit Industries Immigrants are also over-represented in some of the industries that are now seeing huge declines in demand due to efforts to slow the spread of the pandemic. With state and local governments urging people to engage in social distancing and limit trips outside the home, and some governments mandating the closure of “nonessential” businesses, economic activity has drastically slowed—hitting some industries particularly hard. Restaurants and bars around the country are either closing entirely or scaling back dramatically as they move to takeout services only. The entire travel industry has seen mass cancellations and has been laying off workers. Stores other than grocery stores and pharmacies are shutting their doors for an unknown period. People are avoiding (or are barred from accessing) services that bring them into close contact with others, such as haircuts, manicures, and massages. And with so many Americans either working from home or unemployed—and wishing to avoid contact with others—many households are letting go of in-home help such as housecleaners and child-care workers. MPI finds that 20 percent of the U.S. workers in vulnerable industries facing massive layoffs are immigrants. These 6 million individuals are coincidentally about the same number as the immigrant workers in industries vital to the coronavirus response, meaning that collectively 12 million foreign-born workers are at the leading edge of the response to and impacts from the pandemic. The jobs filled by immigrant workers within some of the industries facing mass job loss are detailed here. MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 6 IMMIGRANT WORKERS: VITAL TO THE U.S. COVID-19 RESPONSE, DISPROPORTIONATELY VULNERABLE TABLE 6 Workers in Industries Facing Major Layoffs Due to the COVID-19 Economic Downturn, 2018 All Workers Foreign-Born Workers Number Accommodation and Food Services Share 11,494,000 2,536,000 22% Nonessential Retail 7,221,000 1,048,000 15% Personal Services and Private Households 3,758,000 1,112,000 30% Arts and Entertainment 3,436,000 418,000 12% Building Services 1,527,000 584,000 38% Nonessential Transportation: Air Travel, Sightseeing, Couriers, Messengers 1,525,000 240,000 16% 331,000 63,000 19% 29,291,000 6,000,000 20% 155,716,000 27,124,000 17% Travel Assistance Total in Industries Facing Major Layoffs Total Civilian Workforce Note: Nonessential retail includes clothing, shoe, jewelry, sporting goods, book, department, office supply, and other stores that have largely been closed as part of the response to COVID-19. Source: MPI tabulation of the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2018 ACS accessed on March 19, 2020 through IPUMS. A. Accommodation and Food Services Facing a spate of international traveler restrictions and sharply curbed domestic demand, airlines are cutting flights and hotels and other temporary rental lodging are facing empty rooms and, as a result, reduced need for staff. A growing number of bars and restaurants in many parts of the United States have cut staff or simply opted to close altogether, as their business has been put on hiatus or sharply curtailed. Within the broad accommodation and food services industry, immigrants are substantial shares of workers within particular occupations. The foreign born represent 52 percent of maids and cleaners in this industry, 38 percent of chefs and head cooks, 30 percent of cooks, and 22 percent of food preparation workers. MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 7 IMMIGRANT WORKERS: VITAL TO THE U.S. COVID-19 RESPONSE, DISPROPORTIONATELY VULNERABLE TABLE 7 Ten Largest Occupations in Accommodation and Food Services Industries, 2018 All Workers Foreign-Born Workers Number Percent Waiters 2,083,000 362,000 17% Cooks 1,784,000 536,000 30% Food Service Managers 942,000 204,000 22% Cashiers 813,000 151,000 19% Food Preparation Workers 761,000 167,000 22% First-Line Supervisors of Food Preparation and Serving Workers 483,000 84,000 17% Bartenders 392,000 35,000 9% Fast Food and Counter Workers 391,000 48,000 12% Chefs and Head Cooks 378,000 143,000 38% Maids and Housekeepers 372,000 193,000 52% 11,494,000 2,536,000 22% Total Accommodation and Food Services Source: MPI tabulation of the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2018 ACS accessed on March 19, 2020 through IPUMS. B. Personal Services and Private Households The personal and private household services industries are also seeing jobs disappear in large numbers. These industries include in-person services, such as manicures and massages that people opt to avoid when finances are tight. Immigrants make up a full 30 percent of workers in these industries, including 78 percent of manicurists and pedicurists, 63 percent of maids and housekeepers, 52 percent of laundry and dry-cleaning services, and 46 percent of parking attendants. MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 8 IMMIGRANT WORKERS: VITAL TO THE U.S. COVID-19 RESPONSE, DISPROPORTIONATELY VULNERABLE TABLE 8 Ten Largest Occupations in Personal Services and Private Household Industries, 2018 All Workers Foreign-Born Workers Number Percent Maids and Housekeepers 392,000 248,000 63% Manicurists and Pedicurists 250,000 194,000 78% Hairdressers, Hairstylists, and Cosmetologists 850,000 140,000 16% Child-Care Workers 231,000 69,000 30% Personal Care Aides 147,000 45,000 30% Laundry and Dry-Cleaning Workers 79,000 41,000 52% Cleaners of Vehicles and Equipment 118,000 36,000 31% Barbers 123,000 26,000 21% Massage Therapists 141,000 25,000 18% Parking Attendants 44,000 20,000 46% 3,758,000 1,112,000 30% Total personal services and private household Source: MPI tabulation of the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2018 ACS accessed on March 19, 2020 through IPUMS. C. Building Services of workers required to staff and clean buildings has been greatly reduced. Immigrants account for 38 With most office workers across the country now working from home, local mandates to close “nonessential” workplaces, and apartment buildings scaling back services for public health reasons, the number percent of all building services workers, including 59 percent of maids and housekeepers, 41 percent of janitors, and 21 percent of maintenance and repair workers. MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 9 IMMIGRANT WORKERS: VITAL TO THE U.S. COVID-19 RESPONSE, DISPROPORTIONATELY VULNERABLE TABLE 9 Ten Largest Occupations in the Building Services Industry, 2018 All Workers Foreign-Born Workers Number Percent Janitors and Building Cleaners 723,000 298,000 41% Maids and Housekeepers 317,000 188,000 59% First-Line Supervisors of Housekeeping and Janitorial Workers 140,000 36,000 26% Pest Control Workers 80,000 7,000 9% Other Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Workers 44,000 9,000 21% Secretaries and Administrative Assistants, except Legal, Medical, and Executive 15,000 1,000 8% Managers, not otherwise classified 13,000 3,000 20% Sales Representatives of Services, except Advertising, Insurance, Financial Services, and Travel 13,000 < 1,000 3% Manual Laborers and Freight, Stock, Material Movers 11,000 4,000 36% Laundry and Dry-Cleaning Workers 10,000 2,000 17% 1,527,000 584,000 38% Total Building Services Source: MPI tabulation of the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2018 ACS accessed on March 19, 2020 through IPUMS. 3 In Hard-Hit Industries, Immigrants Are More Vulnerable Mass layoffs in industries bearing the brunt of the sharp economic slowdown will have enormous ripple effects across the economy—and on individual households. If the economic dislocation continues for weeks and months, many families will struggle to afford food, medical care, and other necessities, and may fall behind on rent, utility bills, and credit card and car payments.5 These hardships will affect millions upon millions of residents, U.S. born and foreign born alike. This reality is despite urgent government efforts to offer relief, which culminated with Senate passage March 25 of an estimated $2 trillion pandemic aid package.6 Beyond congressional action on a relief measure, federal, state, and local governments are making other efforts to curb the economic damage. For example, some localities are barring landlords from evicting tenants and blocking utility companies from disconnecting services for nonpayment.7 The federal government is allowing individuals with federal student loans to stop accruing interest and pause payments8 and homeowners affected by the economic downturn to have mortgage payments reduced or deferred for a year.9 To date, President Donald Trump has signed a bill to expand access to paid family and medical leave and nutrition assistance, and Congress was poised to send the president on March 27 a massive $2 trillion measure including cash relief payments for most Americans and an expansion of unemployment benefits.10 Yet immigrant workers have less access to this relief and to existing safety-net programs, and also face additional vulnerabilities. Immigrants facing MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 10 IMMIGRANT WORKERS: VITAL TO THE U.S. COVID-19 RESPONSE, DISPROPORTIONATELY VULNERABLE layoffs in the hardest-hit industries profiled in this fact sheet have lower incomes and larger families than their U.S.-born peers in the same industries. Thirty-eight percent are in low-income households (with income below 200 percent of the federal poverty line), compared to 30 percent of their U.S.-born counterparts. Twenty-eight percent lack health insurance coverage, which is twice the rate of similar U.S.-born workers. And 38 percent of these immigrant workers have a minor child at home, compared to 23 percent of the U.S.-born workers. Fifty-five percent have limited English proficiency. The pace and extent the layoffs resulting from the COVID-19 economic downturn will test state and local unemployment systems and federal, state, and local safety nets in unprecedented ways. Noncitizens—who represent more than half of workers in the hardest-hit industries—face restricted access to some of the safety-net programs on offer, ineligible for some, eligible for others. For example, a sizable number of noncitizen workers, including green-card holders, those on a temporary visa, and individuals with Temporary Protected Status (TPS) or Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA), can access unemployment insurance. And U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) has made clear that unemployment insurance does not count in a public-charge test.11 On the other hand, most noncitizens—including unauthorized immigrants, temporary workers, and many of those who obtained green cards within the past five years—cannot access the federal, means-tested benefits that other workers turn to in times of need. These programs include Medicaid, Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), and the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, also known as food stamps). SNAP, in particular, was used heavily by struggling families during the 2008-09 recession. Many immigrants will be eligible for the cash relief payments in the $2 trillion relief package. But unauthorized immigrants without Social Security numbers and most U.S.-citizen or legal immigrant spouses who file taxes jointly with such unauthorized immigrants would not. 4 Conclusion The COVID-19 outbreak and the stunningly rapid economic contraction it has brought will strain the health and well-being of workers on the frontlines of the pandemic as well as the economic resources of tens of millions of U.S. workers. Immigrant workers will form a particularly hard-hit group. Access to safety-net services will be thin for a majority of immigrant workers in these frontline industries because they are noncitizens. The pandemic presents serious questions about the impacts of restricting public health insurance and safety-net programs to some of the most vulnerable immigrants, at a time when it is imperative to prevent all residents from becoming ill and transmitting the virus to others. And when the best tool the United States has against the virus is to keep the great majority of workers at home, even at the cost of their incomes and jobs, there are real questions about what standard of living the government should guarantee, and to whom. The economic fates of those with most constrained access to economic supports—unauthorized immigrants—affect not only these immigrants themselves, but also their 2 million U.S.-citizen or lawful permanent resident spouses and their 4.1 million U.S.-citizen children.12 How deeply the coronavirus hits communities and how quickly the United States can recover, medically and economically, will depend partly on how the country treats its most vulnerable families, immigrant and U.S. born alike, in this moment of peril. MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 11 IMMIGRANT WORKERS: VITAL TO THE U.S. COVID-19 RESPONSE, DISPROPORTIONATELY VULNERABLE Endnotes 1 2 U.S. Department of Labor, “Unemployment Insurance Weekly Claims” (news release, March 26, 2020). Some industries were not included in this analysis because they are not clearly either a frontline responder to the COVID-19 virus or an industry that figures to be among the hardest hit by the sharp economic slowdown resulting from social distancing and curbs on travel and other activities. For example, some manufacturing may be slowing as consumer demand for nonessential goods dries up, but manufacturing of certain necessities—respirators, masks, toilet paper, and hand sanitizer, among the most visible right now—may be expanding. Child-care workers also fall into a middle ground. Many child-care and early education centers have closed or will do so as families withdraw children or as states mandate their closure. But others are preparing to stay open and are staffed to care for the children of medical professionals and other frontline workers, placing these child-care workers also at the forefront of the coronavirus response. 3 U.S. Census Bureau, 2018 American Community Survey, accessed March 19, 2020, through Steven Ruggles, Sarah Flood, Ronald Goeken, Josiah Grover, Erin Meyer, Jose Pacas, and Matthew Sobek, “IPUMS USA: Version 10.0 [dataset].” 4 All data provided in the fact sheet derives from the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2018 American Community Survey (ACS), unless specified otherwise. 5 The Brookings Institution estimates that about 40 percent of U.S. residents lack the finances to weather even a $400 emergency. See Stephen Roll, Olga Kondratjeva, and Michal Grinstein-Weiss, “Financial Well-Being: Measuring Financial Perceptions and Experiences in Low- And Moderate-Income Households,” Brookings blog, December 13, 2019.. 6 H.R. 748 - CARES Act, 116th Cong., 2nd sess. 7 See, for example, Samantha Fields, “HUD, Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac and Growing List of Cities Suspend Evictions because of Coronavirus,” Marketplace, March 18, 2020, 8 U.S. Department of Education, “Delivering on President Trump’s Promise, Secretary DeVos Suspends Federal Student Loan Payments, Waives Interest During National Emergency” (news release, March 20, 2020). 9 Chris Arnold, “U.S. Orders up to a Yearlong Break on Mortgage Payments,” National Public Radio, March 19, 2020. 10 CNN, “What’s in the $2 trillion coronavirus stimulus bill,” CNN, March 26, 2020. 11 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS), “Inadmissibility on Public Charge Grounds,” Federal Register 84, August 14, 2019, 41292-508. 12 Migration Policy Institute (MPI) Data Hub, “Profile of the Unauthorized Population: United States,” accessed March 27, 2020; Julia Gelatt and Jie Zong, Settling In: A Profile of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population in the United States (Washington, DC: MPI, 2018). About the Author JULIA GELATT @J_Gelatt Julia Gelatt is a Senior Policy Analyst at the Migration Policy Institute, working with the U.S. Immigration Policy Program. Her work focuses on the legal immigration system, demographic trends, and the implications of local, state, and federal U.S. immigration policy. Dr. Gelatt previously worked as a Research Associate at the Urban Institute, where her mixed-methods research focused on state policies toward immigrants; barriers to and facilitators of immigrant families’ access to public benefits and public prekindergarten programs; and identifying youth victims of human trafficking. She was a Research Assistant at MPI before graduate school. Dr. Gelatt earned her PhD in sociology, with a specialization in demography, from Princeton University, where her work focused on the relationship between immigration status and children’s health and well-being. She earned a bachelor of the arts in sociology/anthropology from Carleton College. MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 12 IMMIGRANT WORKERS: VITAL TO THE U.S. COVID-19 RESPONSE, DISPROPORTIONATELY VULNERABLE Acknowledgments This research was supported by the Ford Foundation, the Carnegie Corporation of New York, Unbound Philanthropy, Open Society Foundations, and the 21st Century International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union (ILWGU) Heritage Fund. The author expresses her gratitude to Migration Policy Institute (MPI) colleague Muzaffar Chishti for suggesting this work and to him and Michael Fix for helpful feedback. She also thanks Michelle Mittelstadt for her expert editing and Sara Staedicke for production of the fact sheet. © 2020 Migration Policy Institute. All Rights Reserved. Design and Layout: Sara Staedicke, MPI No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the Migration Policy Institute. A full-text PDF of this document is available for free download from www.migrationpolicy.org. Information for reproducing excerpts from this publication can be found at www.migrationpolicy.org/about/copyright-policy. Inquiries can also be directed to communications@migrationpolicy.org. Suggested citation: Gelatt, Julia. 2020. Immigrant Workers: Vital to the U.S. COVID-19 Response, Disproportionately Vulnerable. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute. MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 13 www.migrationpolicy.org The Migration Policy Institute is an independent, nonpartisan think tank that seeks to improve immigration and integration policies through authoritative research and analysis, opportunities for learning and dialogue, and the development of new ideas to address complex policy questions. 1400 16th St NW, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20036 202-266-1940 Migration Narratives 1. Nation of immigrants 1. Restrictionist/national sovereignty/Deportation Nation 1. Settler c0lonialism 1. Mobility Legal Immigration to the U.S. Family-based and Labor-based Numbers and Categories US Immigration Law and Policy Spring 2021 Legal Immigration to the US Immigrant: noncitizen authorized to become lawful permanent resident (LPR) of the United States ? LPR = green card holders Nonimmigrant: noncitizen admitted to the US for a temporary stay Number of foreign-born living in the US in 2018: approx. 45 million 50 % are naturalized US citizens; 25% are lawful permanent residents; 25% are undocumented migrants Legal Immigration in the US Legal Immigration to the US Slightly more than 1 million immigrants are granted lawful permanent residence annually > Just over half are already in the United States and adjusting from temporary status > Family-based immigration comprises about 2/3 of the annual total New Lawful Permanent Residents by Region and Country of Birth: Fiscal Years 2017-2019 New Lawful Permanent Residents by Region and Country of Birth: Fiscal Years 2017-2019 Legal Permanent Residents (aka Green Card holders) Green-card holders are permitted: ? To live and work in the U.S. indefinitely > As long as they do not commit a crime or some other post-entry act that makes them deportable ? To join the Armed Forces ? To apply for U.S. citizenship after five years, or after three if married to a U.S. citizen ? Be eligible for most federal benefits after 5 yrs Categories of Legal Immigration 1) Family-sponsored (non-quota and quota) 2) Employment-based 3) Diversity 4) Humanitarian admissions Legal Immigration in the US New Lawful Permanent Residents by Major Class of Admission: Fiscal Year 2017 to 2019 Family-Based Immigration Admissions of immediate relatives of US citizens is numerically unlimited > Spouses, children, and parents > Approx. half-million admissions per year Admissions of family-sponsored preference categories are capped at 226,000 slots per year 1. 2. 3. 4. Unmarried sons and daughters (> 21) of US citizens Spouses and unmarried children of permanent residents Married sons and daughters of US citizens Brothers and sisters of US citizens if citizens is 21 or older “Chain Migration” Immigrant → spouse and unmarried children ( 21 [1st pref.] → sibling [4th preference] → sibling’s spouse and children → all naturalize → sibling’s spouse’s parents [non-quota] → parents’ unmarried children [2d preference] Labor-Based Immigration Quotas Admissions are capped at about 140,000 per year Workers’ family members are included in this cap > Approx. only half of the 140,000 slots go to workers themselves Labor-Based Immigration Most employment based immigrants enter through five discrete channels: 1. “Persons of extraordinary ability” who can document high-level accomplishments in their field, a tough standard for most workers to meet, particularly early in their careers 2. Professionals with advanced graduate degrees or exceptional ability 3. Professionals, skilled workers (those with at least a two-year college degree), and unskilled workers (10,000 green cards are allocated yearly) 4. Certain special immigrants who meet U.S. national interests 5. Immigrant investors, who invest at least $1.8 million (or $900,000 in rural or high unemployment areas). Diversity Immigrants Lottery system; over 14 million people apply in 2018 Approx. 50,000 individuals chosen per year Applicants must meet threshold requirements: education or work experience, medical and security checks Natives of about 15 to 20 countries that already send a high number of immigrants are not eligible; low admission states given priority Top “winning” countries (>1500): Albania, Algeria, Armenia, Australia, Dem Rep Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia,Iran, Liberia, Nepal, Russia, Sierra Leone, Togo, Turkey, Ukraine, Uzbekistan Persons Obtaining Green Card in 2019 Family-based Immediate relatives of US citizens: 505,765 [Spouses: 304,333; Kids: 61,303; Parents: 140,128] Family-sponsored preferences: 204,139 Employment-based: 139,458 Diversity: 43,463 Refugees: 80,908 Asylees: 26,003 Others: 32,013 GRAND TOTAL: 1,031,765 Waiting Time for Admission via Immigrant Preferences People who are now receiving their Visas have applied in: F1--unmarried sons and daughters of US citizens Sept 2014 F2A--spouses and children of permanent residents Current F2B--unmarried sons and daughters, 21 years of age or older, of permanent residents July 2015 F3--married sons and daughters of US citizens July 2008 F4--brothers and sisters of adult US citizens Oct 2006 All categories for employment-based preferences No waiting time Waiting Time for Family-Based Immigration--4th preference (Siblings of US Citizens) People who are now receiving their Visas have applied in: Mexico China July 1998 Feb 2002 Philippines India Oct 2006 March 2005 Waiting Time for Labor-Based Immigration--2d preference People who are now receiving their Visas have applied in: Mexico China Current Current Philippines India Oct 2016 Oct 2009 Non-immigrant admissions--major categories 2019 Temporary visitors for pleasure (tourist): 43,968,625 [+19M visa waiver] Temporary visitors for business: 5,853,592 [+3M visa waiver] Students: 1,907,176 Exchange visitors: 620,479 Temporary workers and families: 4,106,324 [H1B = 601,594 / H2A = 442,822 / TN = 725,929 / spouses and children = 337,086] Total non-immigrant admissions 2019: 81,563,139 (does not include short-term visitors from Mexico and Canada--many tens of millions) H-1B Workers and Students 2019 Countries that have the most H-1B workers: [57.9%] [18.3%] India China *Initial employment Countries that send the most students to the United States: [34.6 %] China [18.0%] [4.6 %] [2.9 %] India South Korea Saudi Arabia Non-Immigrant Admission: H-1B Visa ? 85% of employment-based immigrants adjust to lawful permanent residence from a temporary worker or student visa within the United States ? Difficulty of finding an employer sponsor while abroad ? Strong demand by H-1B workers and their employers for permanent immigration Biden proposals on legal immigration: US Citizenship Act of 2021 ? Keep families together. “The bill reforms the family-based immigration system by clearing backlogs, recapturing unused visas, eliminating lengthy wait times, and increasing per-country visa caps. . . . The bill further supports familes by more explicitly including permanent partnerships and eliminating discrimination facing LGBTQ+ families. . . . Lastly, the bill allows immigrants with approved family-sponsorship petitions to join family in the United States on a temporary basis while they wait for green cards to become available. ? Embrace diversity. The bill includes the NO BAN Act that prohibits discrimination based on religion and limits presidential authority to issue future bans. The bill also increases Diversity Visas to 80,000 from 55,000. ? Grow our economy. This bill clears employment-based visa backlogs, recaptures unused visas, reduces lengthy wait times, and eliminates per-country visa caps. The bill makes it easier for graduates of U.S. universities with advanced STEM degrees to stay in the United States; improves access to green cards for workers in lower-wage sectors; and eliminates other unnecessary hurdles for employment-based green cards. The bill provides dependents of H-1B visa holders work authorization, and children are prevented from “aging out” of the system. The bill also creates a pilot program to stimulate regional economic development, gives DHS the authority to adjust green cards based on macroeconomic conditions, and incentivizes higher wages for nonimmigrant, high-skilled visas to prevent unfair competition with American workers. Stable Numbers, Changing Origins DECEMBER 2020 BY RANDY CAPPS, JULIA GELATT, ARIEL G. RUIZ SOTO, AND JENNIFER VAN HOOK Executive Summary The number of unauthorized immigrants in the United States has largely stabilized over the past decade, rebounding slightly after a dip immediately following the recession of 2008–09. As of 2018, the Migration Policy Institute (MPI) estimates that there were 11 million unauthorized immigrants in the country, down slightly from 12.3 million in 2007. This pattern of little growth or even decline in the unauthorized immigrant population has been noted by other analysts as well, and it follows a long period of high growth through the 1990s and early 2000s. Yet there have been notable changes in the characteristics of this population during the numerically stable, post2008 period. The origin countries of unauthorized immigrants have shifted, for example, as the number of unauthorized immigrants from Mexico has dropped, and populations from other world regions, particularly Asia and Central America, have continued to grow. This fact sheet offers a profile of the unauthorized immigrant population, using a unique methodology developed by MPI researchers in partnership with leading demographers at The Pennsylvania State University and Temple University to analyze the latest data from the U.S. Census Bureau and U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). It highlights key trends from a newly updated MPI data tool that can be used by policymakers, media professionals, BOX 1 Explore U.S. and State Data For a detailed sociodemographic profile of unauthorized immigrants in the United States, 41 states and the District of Colombia, and the 127 counties with the largest unauthorized populations, explore MPI’s interactive data tool: bit.ly/unauthdata scholars, advocates, and the general public to better understand the characteristics of the unauthorized immigrant population at the national, state, and local levels. Among the key findings: ? In 2018, though their share was shrinking, Mexicans still accounted for about half of all unauthorized immigrants. Mexico and Central America more broadly remain far and away the greatest source region for unauthorized immigrants—with two-thirds of the total— while Asia came in second with 14 percent. ? Unauthorized immigrants’ share of the total U.S. foreign-born population fell from 30 percent in 2007 to 23 percent in 2018, while the share comprised by legal immigrants— especially naturalized citizens—rose. This shift indicates that the foreign-born population overall is becoming better socially and politically integrated. FACT SHEET Unauthorized Immigrants in the United States UNAUTHORIZED IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES: STABLE NUMBERS, CHANGING ORIGINS ? About 1.6 million unauthorized immigrants were married to U.S. citizens and another 675,000 were married to lawful permanent residents (LPRs) in 2018. At the same time, 4.4 million U.S.-citizen children had at least one unauthorized immigrant parent, as did 100,000 LPR or nonimmigrant children. Citizens and LPRs living in mixed-status families with unauthorized immigrants face potential economic hardship due to the limited employment options of unauthorized immigrants and restrictions on their eligibility for assistance programs such as unemployment insurance and food stamps. ? In 2018, 15 percent of unauthorized immigrants (1.7 million people) had a temporary status or deferral of deportation with work authorization, including Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) beneficiaries, Temporary Protected Status (TPS) holders, and asylum applicants granted employment authorization. ? Although they have become more dispersed across the country, unauthorized immigrants remain concentrated in certain states. In 2018, almost one-quarter lived in California, and nearly half lived in either California, Texas, or New York. At the local level, onefifth resided in the counties where four major cities—Los Angeles, New York, Houston, and Chicago—are located. The recent stabilization—and in some years, decline—of the unauthorized immigrant population can be attributed to fluctuations in the U.S. economy, a decline in the pool of potential migrants from Mexico as demographics there changed and economic opportunities expanded, and heightened U.S. border and interior immigration enforcement. The changing characteristics of this population are important as states and counties across the country assess the economic contributions of their unauthorized immigrant residents as well as their health, economic, and social service needs. Looking ahead, future trends in this population’s numbers and characteristics will be shaped by the ongoing effects of the Trump administration’s ramped-up border enforcement, asylum restrictions, and deportations; the impacts of the pandemic and the associated economic contraction in both the United States and origin countries; and the course the incoming Biden administration sets for U.S. immigration policy. 1 Introduction The size of the unauthorized immigrant population in the United States has largely stabilized over the past decade. After a long period of high growth that stretched through the 1990s and early 2000s, this population contracted immediately following the recession of 2008–09, before rebounding slightly. Since that recession, the Mexican unauthorized immigrant population has declined substantially, while immigrants from Central America and Asia have grown as a share of the overall unauthorized population. This fact sheet sketches a profile of the 11 million unauthorized immigrants the Migration Policy Institute (MPI) estimates were living in the country as of 2018. Included in the profile are: their top countries and regions of origin; how they fit within the broader U.S. immigrant population; how many are part of mixed-status families; the U.S. states and counties where the largest numbers live; and key socioeconomic characteristics such as education, English proficiency, and family income levels. The indicators described in this fact sheet and featured in the associated interactive data tool (bit.ly/ unauthdata) are designed to address policy questions such as: ? How many unauthorized immigrants are eligible for the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program, and how many MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 2 UNAUTHORIZED IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES: STABLE NUMBERS, CHANGING ORIGINS would be eligible for an expansion of DACA or a broader legalization program? ? How many are low income and may need assistance during the COVID-19 pandemic and associated recession? ? How many are well educated, holding a bachelor’s degree or higher, and how many are proficient in English? ? How can past trends in the size and composition of the unauthorized immigrant population help predict future trends? These types of policy questions resonate not just at the national but also the state and local levels. The unauthorized immigrant population is distributed unevenly across the country, with high concentrations in major metropolitan areas—such as Los Angeles, New York, Houston, and Chicago—but also growing numbers in smaller cities and rural areas across the country. The data described in this fact sheet and the online tool can be used by these communities to assess the economic contributions of unauthorized immigrants as well as their health, economic, and social service needs. 2 Recent Trends in the Unauthorized Immigrant Population The 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s were decades of rapid growth in the United States’ immigrant population—both legal and unauthorized. In 1980, there were 12.0 million foreign-born people in the country, of whom an estimated 2.1 million or 18 percent were unauthorized immigrants.1 By 2000, the foreign-born population had risen to 31.1 million, with the 8.0 million unauthorized immigrants comprising about one-quarter of this total. According to MPI’s estimates, the unauthorized immigrant population BOX 2 Building a Profile of the United States’ Unauthorized Immigrant Population To track trends in the unauthorized immigrant population and provide the best possible estimates of this group at the national, state, and local levels, the Migration Policy Institute (MPI) has partnered with leading demographers at The Pennsylvania State University and Temple University. Together, this research team has developed a unique methodology to estimate the number of unauthorized immigrants and to ascertain their characteristics by assigning legal status to noncitizens in the U.S. Census Bureau’s annual American Community Survey (ACS). Our method combines detailed data from several authoritative data sources, including the Census Bureau and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The first step involves comparing the total foreign-born population in the ACS with the number of legal immigrants counted in DHS administrative records; the difference between these two estimates represents the number of unauthorized immigrants in the country. In a second critical step, the total unauthorized immigrant population is weighted upward using the best available information about the undercount of immigrants in the ACS. In the third and final step, the characteristics of unauthorized immigrants are estimated by comparing the characteristics of noncitizens in the ACS with those of legal versus unauthorized immigrants as reported in the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP). The SIPP is a smaller, periodic, nationwide Census Bureau survey that asks noncitizens whether they have a green card or another form of legal immigration status. For more information on this methodology, an in-depth explanation can be found on the MPI website: bit.ly/MPILegalStatusMethods MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 3 UNAUTHORIZED IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES: STABLE NUMBERS, CHANGING ORIGINS grew by more than 50 percent between 2000 and 2007, peaking at 12.3 million just before the Great Recession (see Figure 1). The 2008–09 recession led to a spike in unemployment among all U.S. workers, with particularly high rates among Latino immigrants, almost half of whom were unauthorized.2 This drop in demand for labor in the United States was accompanied by a pronounced dip in the number of unauthorized immigrants, which fell from 12.3 million in 2007 to 10.3 million in 2010 through 2012. Contributing to this dip was an upswing in deportations from the U.S. interior, which peaked at more than 200,000 annually between fiscal year (FY) 2008 and FY 2011.3 As the economy recovered and deportations subsided,4 the population rebounded slowly, reaching 11.0 million in 2018, the latest year for which ACS data are available. MPI’s finding that the unauthorized immigrant population peaked just before the recession is in line with similar estimates from the Pew Research Center and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Office of Immigration Statistics. After that, estimates by different research organizations diverge somewhat. MPI and DHS find a sharper initial drop followed by a rebound, while Pew and the Center for Migration Studies (CMS) show a more constant rate of decline. But estimates from all four institutions for the 2015–18 period fall within a relatively narrow range of between 10.5 million and 12.0 million. Mexicans have long comprised the largest group of unauthorized immigrants in the United States. The number of unauthorized immigrants born in Mexico also peaked in 2007, but it has fallen consistently and precipitously since then. MPI estimates that the Mexican-origin unauthorized immigrant population fell from 7.6 million in 2007 to 5.5 million in 2018 (see Figure 2). Estimates from Pew, DHS, and CMS show a similar trend, though with slightly different levels. FIGURE 1 Estimates of the Size of the U.S. Unauthorized Immigrant Population, 2000–18 Millions 14 12.0 million (2015) 12 11.0 million (2018) 10.6 million (2018) 10.5 million (2017) 10 8 Migration Policy Institute 6 Department of Homeland Security Pew Research Center 4 Center for Migration Studies 2 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 Sources: Analysis of U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) administrative records and data from the U.S. Census Bureau (the 2000 decennial census and the American Community Survey [ACS] for various years) by Migration Policy Institute (MPI) researchers and Jennifer Van Hook at The Pennsylvania State University, Population Research Center. Estimates from other organizations are from Jens Manuel Krogstad, Jeffrey S. Passel, and D’Vera Cohn, “5 Facts about Illegal Immigration in the U.S.,” Pew Research Center, June 12, 2019; Robert Warren, “Reverse Migration to Mexico Led to U.S. Undocumented Population Decline: 2010 to 2018,” Journal on Migration and Human Security 8, no. 1 (2020): 32–41; Bryan Baker, Illegal Alien Population Residing in the United States: January 2015 (Washington, DC: DHS Office of Immigration Statistics, 2018). MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 4 UNAUTHORIZED IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES: STABLE NUMBERS, CHANGING ORIGINS FIGURE 2 Estimates of the Size of the U.S. Unauthorized Immigrant Population from Mexico, 2000–18 Millions 8 7 6.6 million (2015) 6 5.5 million (2018) 5 Migration Policy Institute 4 Department of Homeland Security 3 Pew Research Center 2 Center for Migration Studies 1 2000 5.0 million (2017) 5.1 million (2018) 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 Sources: Analysis of DHS administrative records and data from the U.S. Census Bureau (the 2000 decennial census and the ACS for various years) by MPI researchers and Van Hook. Estimates from other organizations are from Krogstad, Passel, and Cohn, “5 Facts about Illegal Immigration in the U.S.”; Warren, “Reverse Migration to Mexico Led to U.S. Undocumented Population Decline”; Baker, Illegal Alien Population Residing in the United States. In addition to declining job prospects in the United States in the wake of the recession and record-high deportations, Mexicans who might otherwise have considered coming to the United States illegally benefitted from improved conditions at home: a shrinking youth population that reduced competition for work, improved economic conditions that offered new job opportunities, and an expanding higher education system.5 Stepped-up border enforcement efforts by the U.S. government—with increased deployment of personnel and technology alongside greater consequences for immigrants apprehended while illegally (re)entering the country, including potential federal prison time—also contributed to the decline in the Mexican unauthorized immigrant population.6 Consequently, the proportion of Mexicans among all unauthorized immigrants fell from 62 percent to 51 percent between 2007 and 2018. As the number of unauthorized Mexican immigrants declined after 2007, the number from some other countries and regions increased. The largest increase—from 866,000 in 2007 to 1.5 million in 2018 (and from 7 percent to 14 percent of the overall unauthorized population)—occurred among unauthorized immigrants born in Asia. The top Asian sending countries were India, China/Hong Kong, the Philippines, Korea, and Vietnam. The number of unauthorized immigrants born in Central America— primarily in El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras— also increased from 1.5 million in 2007 to 1.8 million in 2018 (and from 12 percent to 16 percent of all unauthorized immigrants). Unauthorized immigrants from Asia almost all overstayed valid visas, while those from Central America—like Mexicans—mostly entered the United States without authorization across the Southwest border.7 3 National Origins of Unauthorized Immigrants Despite their decline in number and share, Mexicans still accounted for about half of all unauthorized immigrants in the United States in 2018. Among MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 5 UNAUTHORIZED IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES: STABLE NUMBERS, CHANGING ORIGINS the other nine most common origin countries were three in Central America (El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras) as well as three in Asia (India, China/ Hong Kong, and the Philippines), as can be seen in Table 1. All countries except Mexico comprised less than 10 percent of the total unauthorized population in 2018. TABLE 1 Ten Most Common Origin Countries for Unauthorized Immigrants in the United States, 2018 Estimated Number of Unauthorized Immigrants Share of Total Unauthorized Immigrant Population 10,977,000 100% 5,572,000 51% El Salvador 750,000 7% Guatemala 588,000 5% India 469,000 4% Honduras 402,000 4% China/Hong Kong 394,000 4% The Philippines 233,000 2% Dominican Republic 191,000 2% Colombia 182,000 2% Brazil 145,000 1% Origin Country Total Mexico Source: These 2018 data result from MPI analysis of data from the 2014–18 ACS, pooled, and the 2008 Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), weighted to 2018 unauthorized immigrant population estimates provided by Jennifer Van Hook at The Pennsylvania State University. BOX 3 Explore Country and Region of Origin Data To find out more about where unauthorized immigrants in different U.S. states and counties come from, explore MPI’s interactive data tool: bit.ly/unauthmap Looking at world regions, Mexicans and Central Americans together were two-thirds of the overall unauthorized population in 2018. Asians accounted for 14 percent, and all other world regions made up less than 10 percent of the total (see Figure 3). FIGURE 3 Regions of Origin and Top Countries within Them for Unauthorized Immigrants in the United States, 2018 Caribbean, 4% Dominican Republic: 47% Haiti: 22% Jamaica: 19% Trinidad and Tobago: 5% Other: 8% South America, 7% Colombia: 23% Brazil: 18% Ecuador: 17% Peru: 13% Other: 28% Mexico and Central America, 68% Europe, Canada, Oceania, 6% Mexico: 75% El Salvador: 10% Guatemala: 8% Honduras: 5% Other: 2% United Kingdom: 9% Canada: 9% Germany: 8% Poland: 7% Other: 67% Asia, 14% Africa, 2% India: 32% Nigeria: 18% Ghana: 10% Kenya: 8% Ethiopia: 7% Other 65% China/Hong Kong: 26% The Philippines: 16% Korea: 8% Other: 19% Source: These 2018 data result from MPI analysis of data from the 2014–18 ACS, pooled, and the 2008 SIPP, weighted to 2018 unauthorized immigrant population estimates provided by Van Hook. 4 Unauthorized and Other Immigrants in the United States In 2018, unauthorized immigrants comprised an estimated 23 percent of the total U.S. immigrant population of 47.5 million (see Figure 4).8 In the decade leading up to 2018, the share of immigrants who were unauthorized declined as their absolute number fell. In 2007, at their peak, unauthorized immigrants accounted for more than 30 percent of the total foreign-born population of 40.6 million.9 MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 6 UNAUTHORIZED IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES: STABLE NUMBERS, CHANGING ORIGINS Meanwhile, the number of naturalized U.S. citizens rose and became an increasing share of all immigrants, and the number who were lawful permanent residents (LPRs, also known as green-card holders) or nonimmigrants held steady. In 2018, the 21.0 million naturalized citizens made up the largest share of all immigrants—44 percent, up from 36 percent in 2007. The number of LPRs grew much more slowly over this period, from an estimated 12.8 million in 2007 to 13.5 million in 2018.10 Although about 1 million people are admitted to the United States as LPRs each year, growth in this population is offset as some green-card holders naturalize and others emigrate.11 In 2018, 15 percent of the estimated unauthorized immigrant population (1.7 million people) had one of three major forms of protection: 1 Asylum applicants with employment authorization documents: 738,000 (7 percent of the total 11 million unauthorized immigrants). Until recently, asylum applicants became eligible to apply for work authorization once their applications had been pending for six months. A new regulation that entered into force in August 2020 extended this waiting period to one year.13 2 Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) recipients: 646,000 (6 percent of the total). Through an executive action in 2012, the Obama administration created the DACA program, which offered two-year, renewable reprieves from deportation for unauthorized immigrants who entered the United States as children (under age 16) before June 15, 2007; who were under age 31 as of June 15, 2012; who were ages 15 or older when they first applied for DACA; and who meet certain other conditions.14 President Trump sought to end the DACA program on September 5, 2017, but to-date, the program has been kept alive through litigation.15 3 Temporary Protected Status (TPS) holders: 320,000 (3 percent of the total). In the Immigration Act of 1990, Congress created TPS for migrants who cannot safely return to their origin countries due to armed conflict, natural disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes, or other extraordinary and temporary conditions. The statute allows the administration to designate and redesignate certain countries for TPS on a periodic basis to reflect changing origin-country conditions. In 2020, the top origin countries for TPS Another group of noncitizens (2.1 million as of 2018) were admitted on a temporary basis with nonimmigrant visas.12 Nonimmigrants include students, diplomats, religious workers, and temporary workers in both high-skilled jobs (H-1B technical workers and L managers or skilled workers) and low-skilled jobs (H-2A agricultural seasonal workers and H-2B hospitality and other nonagricultural seasonal workers). The total number of nonimmigrants in the country is much smaller than the numbers of LPRs, naturalized citizens, and unauthorized immigrants because nonimmigrants generally stay in the United States for short periods, meaning this population does not accumulate in number the way other immigrant groups do. MPI estimates of the unauthorized immigrant population—like those of other research organizations—include some individuals who, while lacking citizenship or a visa, have temporary protection from deportation and work authorization. These forms of protection are subject to the discretion of the U.S. executive branch, which can revoke them—as the Trump administration attempted to do, though its attempts were mostly blocked in court. Once protection is revoked, these immigrants are potentially subject to arrest and deportation. MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 7 UNAUTHORIZED IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES: STABLE NUMBERS, CHANGING ORIGINS FIGURE 4 Citizenship and Legal Status of the U.S. Foreign-Born Population, 2018 Lawful Permanent Residents, 28% Naturalized Citizens, 44% No Lawful Status, 85% Unauthorized Immigrants, 23% Asylum Seekers with Work Authorization, 7% DACA Recipients, 6% TPS Beneficiaries, 3% Nonimmigrants, 4% TPS = Temporary Protected Status; DACA = Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals. Sources: These 2018 data result from MPI analysis of data from the 2014–18 ACS, pooled, and the 2008 SIPP, weighted to 2018 unauthorized immigrant population estimates provided by Van Hook. Data on DACA recipients are from: U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS), “Approximate Active DACA Recipients: As of June 30, 2020” (data table, USCIS, Washington, DC, November 16, 2020). Data on TPS beneficiaries are from: Jill Wilson, Temporary Protected Status: Overview and Current Issues (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2018); USCIS, “Extension of the Designation of Syria for Temporary Protected Status,” Federal Register 84, no. 184 (September 23, 2019): 49751–57; USCIS, “Extension of the Designation of Yemen for Temporary Protected Status,” Federal Register 85, no. 41 (March 2, 2020): 12313–19; USCIS, “Extension of the Designation of Somalia for Temporary Protected Status,” Federal Register 85, no. 48 (March 11, 2020): 14229–35; USCIS, “Extension of the Designation of South Sudan for Temporary Protected Status,” Federal Register 85, no. 212 (November 2, 2020): 69344–51. Data on asylum seekers are from: USCIS, “Form I-765 Application for Employment Authorization, All Receipts, Approvals, Denials Grouped by Eligibility Category and Filing Type” (data table for Fiscal Years 2018 and 2017, USCIS, Washington, DC, accessed November 1, 2020). beneficiaries were El Salvador, Honduras, Haiti, and Nicaragua.16 tion subject to executive discretion will be of policy importance to the incoming Biden administration. The president-elect has expressed his commitment to maintain the full scope of the DACA program as originally implemented,17 and extensions or reinstatements of TPS designations are also likely to be on the new administration’s agenda. Other, smaller groups within the unauthorized immigrant population also have temporary protection from deportation and work authorization but could not be estimated. These include, for example, individuals granted deferred action (essentially, recognition that the government knows they are in the United States without authorization but does not plan to deport them) and those granted withholding of removal (a status granted to humanitarian migrants who do not meet the standards for asylum but demonstrate a clear probability of persecution if sent to their origin country). 5 Estimates of how many unauthorized immigrants have DACA, TPS, or other forms of temporary protec- Understanding the legal status(es) of unauthorized immigrants’ family members is more complex be- Legal Status of Unauthorized Immigrants’ Family Members MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 8 UNAUTHORIZED IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES: STABLE NUMBERS, CHANGING ORIGINS cause individual members of an immigrant family often have different statuses. For instance, in 2018, nearly half of unauthorized immigrant adults (ages 15 and older) were married and, of those who were, nearly half were married to a U.S. citizen or LPR (see Figure 5). MPI estimates that 1.6 million unauthorized immigrants were married to U.S. citizens and 675,000 were married to LPRs in 2018. In other words, more than one-fifth of unauthorized immigrant adults were married to a U.S. citizen or greencard holder. MPI estimates that, as of 2018, there were 5.2 million children (ages 17 and under) with at least one unauthorized immigrant parent; they accounted for 27 percent of the 19.7 million children with at least one immigrant parent of any legal status, and 7 percent of the total U.S. child population of 73.8 million (see Figure 6). Most of the children who lived with unauthorized immigrant parents were born in the United States, and all U.S.-born children are automatically U.S. citizens. As a result, 85 percent of all children with at least one unauthorized immigrant parent were U.S. citizens in 2018 (a total of 4.4 million children). Another 1 percent (fewer than 100,000) were LPRs or nonimmigrants, owing to the presence of at least one parent with that status in the household. The FIGURE 5 Marital Status of Unauthorized Immigrant Adults (ages 15 and older) in the United States and Spouses’ Immigration Status, 2018 Never Married, 39% Married to a U.S. Citizen, 15% Married to a Lawful Permanent Resident (LPR), 6% Married to a Non-U.S. Citizen / Non-LPR, 24% Divorced, Separated, Widowed, 15% Source: These 2018 data result from MPI analysis of data from the 2014–18 ACS, pooled, and the 2008 SIPP, weighted to 2018 unauthorized immigrant population estimates provided by Van Hook. FIGURE 6 Citizenship and Immigration Status of Children of Immigrants* in the United States, 2018 Children of Legal Immigrant Parents, 73% Children of Unauthorized Immigrant Parents, 27% U.S. Citizens (by Birth or Naturalized), 85% Unauthorized Immigrants, 14% LPRs or Nonimmigrants, 1% * Children of immigrants have at least one foreign-born parent. Children of unauthorized immigrant parents have at least one unauthorized immigrant parent, while children of legal immigrant parents do not have any unauthorized immigrant parents. Source: These 2018 data result from MPI analysis of data from the 2014–18 ACS, pooled, and the 2008 SIPP, weighted to 2018 unauthorized immigrant population estimates provided by Van Hook. MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 9 UNAUTHORIZED IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES: STABLE NUMBERS, CHANGING ORIGINS remaining 728,000 children with unauthorized immigrant parents were themselves unauthorized. Having an unauthorized immigrant parent or spouse can affect the economic well-being and access to government assistance of other adults and children in immigrant families.18 Unauthorized immigrants have limited job prospects due to restrictions on licensing for many occupations and unregulated, informal employment in others. Research has shown that unauthorized immigrants’ often chaotic work schedules, poor working conditions, and low autonomy on the job can lead to psychological distress, with negative implications for child development.19 Youth with unauthorized immigrant parents complete less schooling than those with legal immigrant parents from the same countries.20 And lack of immigration status can disqualify parents from eligibility for many forms of government assistance such as unemployment benefits, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (also called food stamps) and the pandemic stimulus payments issued under the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act, leading to lower family incomes and higher economic hardship among their U.S.-citizen children.21 Similarly, having an unauthorized immigrant spouse makes U.S. citizens and LPRs eligible for lower food stamp benefits and excluded them from the pandemic stimulus payments. 6 Top U.S. States and Counties for Unauthorized Immigrants Unauthorized immigrants have long been most concentrated in the U.S. Southwest, though they also live in communities across the country. In 2018, California had the most unauthorized immigrants of any state: 2.6 million, or almost one-quarter of the national total (see Table 2). Texas had the second most with 1.7 million, or 16 percent of the total population. No other state accounted for more than 10 percent of the U.S. unauthorized immigrant population. All of the other states in the top ten—except for Arizona—were located outside of the Southwest. These ten states together accounted for 73 percent of the nationwide unauthorized immigrant population. BOX 4 Explore Data on DACA Recipients’ States of Residence To find out which U.S. states have the most beneficiaries of the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program, explore MPI’s interactive data tools for the program: bit.ly/dacatools TABLE 2 Ten U.S. States with the Largest Unauthorized Immigrant Populations, 2018 State United States Estimated Number of Unauthorized Immigrants Share of Total Unauthorized Immigrant Population 10,977,000 100% California 2,625,000 24% Texas 1,730,000 16% New York 866,000 8% Florida 732,000 7% Illinois 437,000 4% New Jersey 425,000 4% Georgia 330,000 3% North Carolina 298,000 3% Arizona 281,000 3% Virginia 251,000 2% Source: These 2018 data result from MPI analysis of data from the 2014–18 ACS, pooled, and the 2008 SIPP, weighted to 2018 unauthorized immigrant population estimates provided by Van Hook. Unauthorized immigrants are also highly concentrated in a small number of cities and counties. The counties containing the four largest U.S. cities together accounted for about one-fifth of the nationwide unauthorized immigrant population in 2018 MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 10 UNAUTHORIZED IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES: STABLE NUMBERS, CHANGING ORIGINS (see Table 3). Los Angeles County had 8 percent of the total, while New York City’s five counties had 6 percent. Harris County, where Houston is located, had 4 percent of the total, and Cook County (which includes Chicago) had another 2 percent. Together, the top ten localities together were home to onethird of all unauthorized immigrants. 7 TABLE 3 Ten U.S. Localities with the Largest Unauthorized Immigrant Populations, 2018 While most unauthorized immigrants’ job prospects are limited by their lack of work authorization, many bring substantial human capital to the U.S. labor market. In 2018, almost one-fifth of unauthorized immigrants had a four-year college degree, compared to one-third of the overall U.S. population.22 Some unauthorized immigrants, both those with more and less formal education, were employed in industries that have become essential during the COVID-19 pandemic, such as health care, agriculture, food processing, and transportation.23 County Estimated Number of Unauthorized Immigrants Share of Total Unauthorized Immigrant Population United States 10,977,000 100% Los Angeles County, CA 880,000 8% New York City Counties* 616,000 6% Harris County, TX 466,000 4% Dallas County, TX 278,000 3% Cook County, IL 263,000 2% Orange County, CA 223,000 2% Maricopa County, AZ 202,000 2% BostonCambridgeQuincy, MA Metropolitan NECTA** 177,000 2% Miami DadeMonroe Counties, FL 176,000 2% San Diego County, CA 173,000 2% * New York City Counties include Bronx County, Kings County, New York County, Queens County, and Richmond County. ** New England City and Town Areas (NECTAs) are geographic entities defined by the U.S. Census Bureau for use as alternatives to counties in the six-state New England region. Source: These 2018 data result from MPI analysis of data from the 2014–18 ACS, pooled, and the 2008 SIPP, weighted to 2018 unauthorized immigrant population estimates provided by Van Hook. Socioeconomic Characteristics of Unauthorized Immigrants The educational attainment of unauthorized immigrants varies by where in the United States they live and their national origins. In 2018, New Hampshire, Washington, DC, Ohio, Michigan, and Massachusetts had the best-educated unauthorized immigrant populations (see Figure 7). Among unauthorized immigrants from the top ten countries of origin, those from India, China, the Philippines, and Brazil were the most likely to have a bachelor’s degree or higher (see Figure 8). In general, unauthorized immigrants in the Northeastern and Midwestern states tended to have more formal education than those living elsewhere. They were also more likely to be from Asia, the Caribbean, and South America—regions that include some of the top origin countries for college-educated unauthorized immigrants (such as China, India, the Dominican Republic, Brazil, and Colombia). In the West and South, a higher proportion of unauthorized immigrants fall into the less well-educated group from Mexico and Central America. MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 11 UNAUTHORIZED IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES: STABLE NUMBERS, CHANGING ORIGINS FIGURE 7 College-Educated Share of Unauthorized Immigrants, by State, 2018 Percent with Bachelor's Degree or Higher 11% 46% © Mapbox © OSM © Mapbox © OSM Notes: The college-educated immigrants included in this figure are those with a bachelor’s degree or higher. States not shaded are those for which the characteristics of unauthorized immigrants could not be estimated due to small sample sizes. Source: These 2018 data result from MPI analysis of data from the 2014–18 ACS, pooled, and the 2008 SIPP, weighted to 2018 unauthorized immigrant population estimates provided by Van Hook. © 2020 Mapbox © OpenStreetMap FIGURE 8 Educational Attainment of Unauthorized Immigrant Adults (ages 25 and older) in the United States, Overall and for the Top Ten Countries of Birth, 2018 19% 55% 34% 44% 5% 36% 37% 37% 5% 30% 51% 51% 58% 57% 57% 65% 37% 8% Ch in a 11% Bachelor's Degree or Higher High School Diploma or Some Colleg e Less than High School 15% Co Do lo m m in bi ica a n Re pu bl ic El Sa lva do r Ho nd ur as M ex ico Gu at em ala 19% Th e In di a 7% 41% Ph ilip pi ne s 11% 6% 46% 82% 27% To ta l 38% 6% Br az il 37% 51% 17% Source: These 2018 data result from MPI analysis of data from the 2014–18 ACS, pooled, and the 2008 SIPP, weighted to 2018 unauthorized immigrant population estimates provided by Van Hook. MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE | 12 UNAUTHORIZED IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES: STABLE NUMBERS, CHANGING ORIGINS More than one-third of unauthorized immigrants in 2018 reported that they spoke English very well or spoke only English, meeting the Census Bureau’s definition of “English proficiency.” New Hampshire, Missouri, Michigan, Ohio, and Washington, DC had the highest English-proficient shares of resident unauthorized immigr...