1)and Eleanor Glueck are today considered founders of the developmental branch of criminological theory.

2. Integrating                               , social, and psychological elements, the Gluecks’ research suggested that the initiation and continuity of a criminal career was a developmental process influenced by both internal and external situations, conditions, and circumstances.

3. Those who study                                attempt to provide a more global vision of a criminal career, encompassing its onset, continuation, and termination.

3.   , in his Philadelphia cohort research, identified a small group of chronic offenders who engaged in frequent and repeated criminal activity across their life spans.

4. Wolfgang found that while many offenders commit a single criminal act and thereafter desist from crime, a small group of                                   engage in frequent and repeated criminal activity and continue to do so across their life span.

5. The concept of                       assumes that the propensity of an individual to participate in antisocial and/or

criminal behaviors is a relatively stable trait, unchanging over their life course.

6. A                                     is a stable feature, characteristic, property, or condition present at birth or soon after that makes some people crime-prone over the life course.

7. Life course theories recognize that as people mature the factors that influence their behaviors change. At first, family relations may be most influential. In later adolescence,                    and          relations dominate.

8. Building                                    –positive relations with individuals and institutions that are life sustaining

supports conventional behavior and inhibits deviant behavior.

9. According to the principles of age-graded theory, repeated negative life experiences create a condition called

                                    .

10. When Elaine Eggleston Doherty and Margaret Ensminger analyzed the relationship between marriage and official

arrest, they found strong evidence of a                                             .

11. Most theories focus on why people get involved in crime. In an important 1993

work,                                        , Robert Sampson and John Laub instead focus on whether there are trails back to conformity

12. In a critical 1990 article, David Rowe, D. Wayne Osgood, and W. Alan Nicewander proposed the concept of

              to explain the flow of crime over the life cycle.

13.                                     and Richard Herrnstein, published Crime and Human Nature in 1985 and suggested that personal traits—such as genetic makeup, intelligence, and body build—may outweigh the importance of social variables as predictors of criminal activity.

14. Critics of the general theory of crime claim that it is             or involves circular reasoning.

15. Gottfredson and Hirschi trace the root cause of poor self-control to inadequate            .

16. According to Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime, the propensity to commit crime is tied directly to a person’s level of                                    .

17. The                                    pathway to crime begins at an early age with stubborn behavior.

18. The                    pathway to crime begins with minor, underhanded behavior such as lying and shoplifting that leads to property damage and that later escalates to more serious forms of criminality.

19. Developmental theory holds that criminality may best be understood as one of many social problems faced by at-risk youth, a view termed                                  . According to this view crime is one among a group of interrelated antisocial behaviors.

20. Most young offenders follow one of two paths. “Typical teenagers” who get into minor scrapes and who engage

in what might be considered rebellious teenage behavior with their friends are considered to be

                                    .

21.                                    are a small group of offenders who begin their career at an early age and then continue to offend well into adulthood. For this group, the seeds of crime persistence are planted early in life and may combine the effects of abnormal traits, such as neurological deficits, with severe family dysfunction.

22. According to                                         , crime is one among a group of interrelated antisocial behaviors that cluster together and typically involve family dysfunction, sexual and physical abuse, substance abuse, smoking, precocious sexuality and early pregnancy, educational underachievement, suicide attempts, sensation seeking, and unemployment

23. The branch of criminology that examines change in a criminal career over the life course is known as:
    1. the social development model.      b. developmental criminology.

c. the general theory of crime.       d. social control theory.

24. The foundation of developmental theory can be traced to   , who researched the life cycle of delinquent careers in the 1930s.
    1. Marvin Wolfgang     b. Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck

c. Rolf Loeber              d. Sampson and Laub

25. The view that criminality as a dynamic process, influenced by a multitude of individual characteristics, traits, and social experiences is known as:
    1. the social development model.      b. life course theory.

c. interactional theory.                                d. human nature theory.

26. According to life course theories, over time individuals’ behaviors will:
    1. stay the same.     b. get worse.

c. get better.           d. all of the above

27. The view that human development is controlled by a stable propensity or “master trait,” present at birth or soon

after is:

1. 1. strain theory.       b. social economic theory.

c. age theory.        d. latent trait theory.

28. According to latent trait theories, while the      to commit crime is stable, the opportunity to commit crime fluctuates over time.
    1. desire    b. ability

c. motivation         d. propensity

29. According to            , crime is a type of social problem rather than the product of other problems.
    1. personality syndrome b. psychological syndrome

c. emotional syndrome             d. problem behavior syndrome

30. Which of the following is not an antisocial behavior that problem behavior syndrome argues affects the likelihood of criminal behavior?
    1. unemployment     b. free will

c. family dysfunction           d. abuse

31. What does research show to be a key factor in terms of the early onset of criminality?
    1. personality disorders       b. racism

c. poor parental discipline        d. all of above

32. Which of the following is not more typical of early-onset girls than early-onset boys?
    1. suicide                    b. depression

c. substance abuse     d. relationship problems

33. Most life course theories believe that the seeds of a criminal career are planted        .
    1. during young adulthood (20s)        b. at any time

c. late in life                                                  d. early in life

34. Most life course theories assume that the seeds of a criminal career are planted early in life and that early onset of deviance strongly predicts          .
    1. the cycle of violence     b. later poor parenting ability

c. one’s age of desistance     d. later and more serious criminality

35.            who have early experiences with antisocial behavior are the ones most likely to persist throughout their life course.
    1. Boys                 b. Girls

c. Boys and girls         d. Victims

36. According to theories of the life course,        factors are examples of feathres such as information processing and attention/perception.
    1. situational   b. socialization

c. social                  d. cognitive

37. When referring to age­graded theory, research supports Sampson and Laub’s suspicion that criminal career

trajectories can be reversed if:

1. 1. life conditions improve.                       b. criminal labels are withdrawn.

c. criminal labels are not internalized.          d. social capital is reduced.

38. .Life events that enable adult offenders to desist from crime are known as:
    1. developmental shifts               b. transition events.

c. key spots.                     d. turning points.

39. The life events most likely to enable adult offenders to desist from crime are:
    1. religion and marriage            b. marriage and career

c. education and religion          d. marriage and education

40. What is known about the marriage factor and crime?
    1. People who maintain successful marriages are more likely to mature out of a life of crime.
    2. Marriage stabilizes people.
    3. The marriage benefit may be intergenerational.
    4. All of the above.

41. Positive relations with individuals and institutions that are life sustaining are known as:
    1. social connections. b. antisocial bonds.

c. social capital.             d. turning points

42.            is a crime-reducing social event. Research proves it to be a key element of social capital and informal social control that allows offenders to lead more conventional lifestyles.
    1. Unemployment        b. Marriage

c. Exiting prison               d. Being a victim

43. A stable feature, characteristic, property, or condition present at birth or established early in life that makes some people crime-prone over the life course is known as a/an:
    1. life-factor.            b. hidden characteristic.

c. underlying feature.          d. latent trait.

44. According to latent trait theories, why are people who are antisocial during adolescence the most likely to persist in crime?
    1. because latent traits are stable.
    2. because adolescents tend to associate with deviant peers.
    3. because educational achievement is more difficult during an adolescent’s middle­ and high­school years.
    4. because cognitive ability is fully formed by adolescence.

45. An inclination or tendency to behave in a particular way is called a/an:
    1. propensity.           b. factor.

c. incidence.             d. trait.

46. Which of the following is a stable feature, characteristic, property, or condition, present at birth or soon after, that makes some people crime prone over the life course.
    1. latent trait         b. propensity

c. birth right          d. social contract

47. High levels of coercion produce criminality. Coercion that involves pressures beyond an individual’s control,

such as economic and social pressure caused by unemployment or poverty, is termed:

1. 1. covert coercion.       b. latent coercion.

c. interpersonal coercion.   d. impersonal coercion.

48. According to Farrington,                                challenges control mechanisms but stops short of physical harm: for

example, vandalism, curfew violations, and unconventional sex.

1. 1. predation         b. defiance

c. submission          d. deviance

49. According Farrington,                                    involves direct forms of physical violence, such as robbery, sexual

assault, or other forms of assault.

1. 1. predation         b. defiance

c. submission          d. control

50. According of Farrington,                        involves passive obedience to the demands of others, such as

submitting to physical or sexual abuse without response.

1. 1. predation         b. defiance

c. submission          d. trait

51. The general theory of crime identifies five life domains that shape how an individual reacts to constraints and motivations. Which of these is not a life domain?
    1. self   b. religion

c. family         d. school

52. What theory, developed by Gottfredson and Hirschi, considers the criminal offender and the criminal act as separate concepts?
    1. human nature theory              b. age-graded theory

c. interactional theory             d. general theory of crime

53. Gottfredson and Hirschi identify people with limited self-control as tending to be:
    1. sensitive.   b. aggressive.

c. irrational.         d. impulsive.

54. Gottfredson and Hirschi trace the root cause of poor self-control to inadequate:
    1. nutrition and health care.  b. intelligence.

c. child-rearing practices.      d. education.

55. One of the small group of offenders whose criminal career continues well into adulthood.
    1. life course persisters            b. latent traiters

c. developmentally overt           d. introverts

56. The pathway of crime that begins with bullying and annoying others and then escalates to physical fighting and violence is known as:
    1. the power pathway          b. the authority conflict pathway

c. the overt pathway       d. the covert pathway

57. The pathway of crime that begins at an early age with stubborn behavior leading to deviance and then to authority avoidance is known as:
    1. the power pathway.         b. the authority conflict pathway.

c. the overt pathway.       d. the covert pathway.

58. Most offenders’ antisocial behavior peaks during adolescence and then diminishes as they mature until around

the age of 18. These offenders are known as:

1. 1. adolescent-limiteds       b. life course persisters

c. adolescent-diminishers           d. social-persisters

59. According to research on persistence patterns,          traits rather than environmental traits seem to have the greatest influence on life course persistence.
    1. social       b. individual

c. economic          d. family

60. Who developed the life course theory to offer separate explanations for persistent offenders and adolescent- limited offenders?
    1. Moffitt         b. Sampson and Laub

c. Agnew          d. Lombroso

61. Programs and policies based on developmental theory typically feature    treatment efforts.
    1. economic-related            b. singular-focused

c. faith-based               d. multisystemic

62. Developmental theories attempt to provide a more global vision of a criminal career, encompassing its onset, persistence, and desistance.
    1. True
    2. False

63. The Gluecks’ research was highly praised for nearly thirty years as the study of crime and delinquency shifted

almost exclusively to social factors.

1. 1. True
   2. False

64. Social Learning theories hold that human development is controlled by a stable propensity or “master trait,”

present at birth or soon after.

1. 1. True
   2. False

65. The concept of overt stability suggests that people change and develop as they mature? life events have a

significant influence on future behavior.

1. 1. True
   2. False

66. The concept of population heterogeneity assumes that the propensity of an individual to participate in antisocial

and/or criminal behaviors is a relatively stable trait, unchanging over their life course.

1. 1. True
   2. False

67. Youths who join gangs are 30% less likely to graduate from high school and 58% less likely to earn a four­year

degree than youths of similar background who do not become gang members

1. 1. True
   2. False

68. One flaw with life course theories is that as people mature they do not take into account things that influence

behavior change as well.

1. 1. True
   2. False

69. Problem behavior syndrome portrays crime as a type of social problem rather than the product of other social

problems.

1. 1. True
   2. False

70. Criminal conduct has been found to increase the chances of premature death due to both natural and unnatural

causes, including deaths from accidents, homicide, and suicide.

1. 1. True
   2. False

71. Adolescents with a history of gang involvement are more likely to have been expelled from school, be binge

drinkers, and test positive for marijuana.

1. 1. True
   2. False

72. Life course theories are inherently integrated theories and suggest that events taking place over the life course influence life choices.
    1. True
    2. False

73. The most important social control a person can establish is a successful marriage.
    1. True
    2. False

74. Life experiences resulting from encounters with formal social control mechanisms, such as police and other authority figures, limit opportunities for criminal behavior. Sampson and Laub’s age­graded theory refers to such experiences as “turning points in crime.”
    1. True
    2. False

75. Research indicates that criminal career trajectories can be reversed if life conditions improve and kids gain social capital.
    1. True
    2. False

76. Aging out is explained by latent trait theory in that one’s propensity to commit crime remains steady over the life

course. Only the opportunity to commit crime fluctuates over time.

1. 1. True
   2. False

77. Latent trait theories hold that some underlying condition present at birth or soon after controls behavior.
    1. True
    2. False

78. Agnew’s general theory of crime and delinquency indicates that crime and social relations are reciprocal. The way an individual reacts to constraints and motivations is shaped by five key elements of human development, called life domains.
    1. True
    2. False

79. The association between self-control, poor impulse control, and crime applies more accurately to juvenile crime as motivations for adult crime differ. This helps to explain the aging out process.
    1. True
    2. False

80. Gottfredson and Hirschi suggest that low self-control is a function of the environment.
    1. True
    2. False

81. Adolescent-limiteds begin offending at a very young age. Even before delinquent activities begin, they typically have serious behavioral problems.
    1. True
    2. False

82. The covert pathway involves aggressive acts that escalate from annoying others and bullying, to physical fighting, and later to violence.
    1. True
    2. False

83. Adolescent­limiteds may be considered “typical teens” who get into minor scrapes and engage in what might be considered rebellious teenage behavior with friends. As they reach their mid-teens, adolescent-limited delinquents begin to mimic the antisocial behavior of more troubled teens, only to reduce the frequency of their offending as they mature (until the age of 18).
    1. True
    2. False

84. Policy-based initiatives based on premises of developmental theory typically feature multisystemic treatment efforts.
    1. True
    2. False

85. Fast Track is designed to prevent serious antisocial behavior and related adolescent problems in high­risk

children entering high school.

1. 1. True
   2. False

86. Over time, aggressive and disruptive children are rejected by families and peers and tend to receive less support

from teachers.

1. 1. True
   2. False

87. Research evaluations indicate that the most promising multicomponent crime and substance­abuse prevention

programs for youths, especially those at high risk, are aimed at improving their developmental skills.

1. 1. True
   2. False

88. Children of high­risk families usually enter the education process poorly prepared for its social, emotional, and

cognitive demands

1. 1. True
   2. False

89. Discuss the history of development theory.

90. Explain and discuss the general principles of the life course theory.

91. Explain latent traits. What is an example of a latent trait?

92. Discuss the factors that comprise problem behavior syndrome (PBS) and the association between PBS and crime.

93. Explain why age of onset is such an important factor in predicting future criminal involvement.

94. How can the process of aging out be explained?

95. According to Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime, explain how impulsivity, poor self­control, and

crime are associated.

96. A number of criticisms of the General Theory of crime remain unanswered. Identify and discuss the implications of these unanswered criticisms.

97. What are the three pathways to crime identified by Loeber? Explain each of them.