Religion

Cosmogony - Origin of the Universe

Nature of God

View of Human Nature

View of Good and Evil

View of “Salvation”

View of After Life

Practices and Rituals

Celebrations and Festivals

Week 2

Hinduism and Jainism

Hinduism: There is no single founder, philosophy or devotional tradition in which defines Hinduism.

Fisher, 2014, p. 95

Jainism: Founder Mahavira or Mahavir (The Great Hero). Fisher, 2014, pp. 121

Hinduism:  

Their Gods include Vishnu, the supreme god in Hindu’s Vaishnavite tradition; Krishna, either the Supreme Being and/or an avatar of Vishnu; Brahma, the Hindu god of creation; Shiva, one of the five primary forms of god in the Smarta tradition of Hinduism; or Shakti, the form of divine feminine creative power is worshiped as the Supreme Being in varying traditions of Hindu.

Fisher, 2014, pp. 84-89

Jainism:

They have zero god and worship Siddha, Mukta and Tirthankaras

Fisher, M.P. (2014) Living Religions Pearson:  Upper Saddle River, NJ

Hinduism:

Believe there is a higher reality. Brahman as defined as a member of the highest Hindu caste, that of the priesthood.  Anyone can become one as long as they change their views and how they behave in the world.

http://www.patheos.com/Library/Hinduism/Beliefs/Human-Nature-and-the-Purpose-of-Existence

Jainism:

All things have souls, but to get liberation you must be in human form.

Hinduism: The Sanskirt word karma means "actions" and refers to the fundamental Hindu principle that one's moral actions have unavoidable and automatic effects on one's fortunes in this life and condition of rebirth in the next.

Fisher, 2014, p. 77

Jainism: “Teaches that there are two different kinds of karma, ghati ("destructive") and aghati ("non-destructive"). The former affects the soul and the latter affects the body.” (“Karma in Jainism”).

Fisher, M.P. (2014) Living Religions Pearson:  Upper Saddle River, NJ

http://www.religionfacts.com/jainism/beliefs/karma

Hinduism:

Believes that salvation is freedom from repeated birth and death.

2014, p. 77

Jainism:

Removing Karma for life and live life of pure, discipline, and nonviolence.

Hinduism: Believe in reincarnation, souls leaving one body and entering another over and over again.

Fisher, 2014, p. 77

Jainism:

Karma plays a role in after life.  Depending on spiritual development they believe you may be reborn in another form, suffer in one of 8 ways in hell or join the highest level of heaven.

Fisher, M.P. (2014) Living Religions Pearson:  Upper Saddle River, NJ

http://www.religionfacts.com/afterlife/jainism

Hinduism:

 The central act of Hindu worship is puja, a ritual to engage the senses of both the devotee and the gods. Dance is often used to express themselves, along with body paint and garments.

Fisher, 2014, p. 95

Jainism: Rituals are important to the Jain faith because it is through them that beliefs and values are expressed. While this religion emphasizes non-violence, which could, in part, be understood as inaction, it also stresses asceticism, which is often marked by certain religious behaviors. Fisher, 2014, p. 134

Fisher, M.P. (2014) Living Religions Pearson:  Upper Saddle River, NJ

Hinduism: “Maha Shivaratri, Holi, Ram Navami, Krishna Janmastami, Ganesh Chaturthi, Dussera, Durga Puja and Diwali.”

Jainism: “Paryushan, Mahavir Jayanti, Kshamavaani, diwali, astami/ Chaturdashi, Veerashasana jayanthi, Shrutha panchami.”

Fisher, M.P. (2014) Living Religions Pearson: Upper Saddle River, NJ

Week 3

Buddhism

The beginning of this world and of life is inconceivable since they have neither beginning nor end. Buddhism is in accordance with this thought. Buddhism provides no historical information about the beginning of things—the universe, the world, life, us

http://www.budsas.org/ebud/whatbudbeliev/297.htm

Buddhism refutes the idea of a God. In fact, the Buddhists believe in the existence of an Enlightened being, who vows to save all sentient beings from their sufferings. According to the Buddhist ideology, anyone can enlighten himself by undertaking a method of mental discipline and a code of conduct.

http://www.buddhist-tourism.com/buddhism/god-in-

In Hinduism, the soul, or atman, is an eternally existing spiritual substance or being and the abiding self that moves from one body to the next at rebirth. The Buddha rejected this concept. He taught that everything is impermanent (anicca), and this includes everything that we associate with being human: sensations, feelings, thoughts and consciousness. This is the doctrine of anatta, "no-soul," a central concept of Buddhism. Buddhists explain the difficulty using the analogy of fire: When one candle is used to light another, the new flame is not the same as the old flame, and yet the first flame directly causes the second. In the same way, one human life, with its particular accumulation of karma, gives rise to the next life, even though no permanent soul passes from one to the other.

http://www.patheos.com/Library/Buddhism.html

The Buddhist understanding is that good and evil are innate, inseparable aspects of life. This view makes it impossible to label a particular individual or group as "good" or "evil." Every single human being is capable of acts of the noblest good, or the basest evil. Moreover, good and evil in Buddhism are seen not as absolute but relative or "relational." The good or evil of an act is understood in terms of its actual impact on our own lives and the lives of others, not on abstract rules of conduct.

http://www.patheos.com/Library/Buddhism.html

For a Buddhist salvation is reaching Nirvana. Nirvana is a transcendental, blissful, spiritual state of nothingness--you become a Buddha. To reach Nirvana you must follow the Noble Eightfold Path. The extinguishing of the all karma that constitutes the self. Nirvana is not a place or a state, but the end of rebirth.

http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/holidays.htm

According to Buddhism, after death one is either reborn into another body (reincarnated) or enters nirvana. Only Buddhas - those who have attained enlightenment - will achieve the latter destination. Based on his no-soul (anatta) doctrine, the Buddha described reincarnation, or the taking on of a new body in the next life, in a different way than the traditional Indian understanding. He compared it to lighting successive candles using the flame of the preceding candle. Although each flame is causally connected to the one that came before it, is it not the same flame. Thus, in Buddhism, reincarnation is usually referred to as "transmigration.” Nirvana is the state of final liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth. It is also therefore the end of suffering. The literal meaning of the word is "to extinguish," in the way that a fire goes out when it runs out of fuel.

http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/holidays.htm

Buddhism incorporates a variety of rituals and practices, which are intended to aid in the journey to enlightenment and bring blessings on oneself and others. While some activities are unique to certain expressions of Buddhism, there are others that are found in most of the popular forms of the belief system. For example, the practice of meditation is central to nearly all forms of Buddhism, and it derives directly from the Buddha’s experiences and teachings. Meditation is the central focus of Zen Buddhism and the only way to liberation in Theravada Buddhism. Types of Buddhist Rituals

Going for Refuge.  This is probably the most significant ritual connecting people to the Dharma.  This is the oldest and most common ritual throughout most Buddhist traditions.

Offering homage or respect to the Buddha, to Buddhist teachers, teachings, or other important areas of Buddhist life.

Making offerings or practicing dana.

Confession of faults

Precept ceremonies

Calling on spiritual forces for support or protection

Blessings, aspirations, and Brahmavihara “prayers.”

http://www.patheos.com/Library/Buddhism.html

There are quite a few Buddhists festivals. Here are some festivals and what they are about:

1) Buddhist New Year

In some countries like Thailand, Burma, Sri Lanka, Cambodia and Lao, the new year is celebrated for three days from the first full moon day in April.

2) Vesak

This festival celebrates the Birthday of Buddha. In one day, the Buddhists celebrate the birth, enlightenment and death of Buddha. This festival takes place on the first full moon of May.

3) Magha Puja Day

Magha Puja Day takes places on the full moon day of the third lunar month (March). This holy day is to commemorate an important event in the life of the Buddha, the fourfold assembly.

4) Asalha Puja Day

Asalha Puja means to honor Buddha on the full moon day of the 8th lunar month (approximately July). It recalls and shows respect to the Buddha’s first teaching.

5) Uposatha

The four holy days in each month. These holy days are during the new moons, full moons and quarter moons. On these days the Buddhists fast (they don’t eat at all).

6) Kathina Ceremony

In this ceremony new robes are offered to Buddhists monks.

http://www.patheos.com/Library/Buddhism.html

Week 4

Daoism and

Confucianism

Daoism: The Dao is the closest concept to a deity there is in philosophical Daoism. The Dao is eternal, having no beginning and no end. Because it has no beginning, it is the oldest thing in the universe. The Dao is neither good nor evil and is the origin of all things. However, the Dao is more of a force than a traditional deity. The Dao has no desires, and it creates the universe but does not control it. This concept of non-manipulation by the Dao is an example of wu-wei.

Fisher, 2014, pp. 182-183

Confucianism: is a socio-philosophical movement aimed at bettering society.  Confucius did believe, however, in the Great Ultimate (Tao), which manifests itself in the “I”, or change.

Fisher, 2014, p. 179.

Daoism: According to philosophical Taoism, there is no Supreme Being or deities of any sort.  There is a “Tao” or “Way” that is the mystical essence that is “the underlying principle that gives order and harmony to the universe.”  Tao is the primordial, undivided state underlying both being and non-being.  In short, Tao is the inherent purposeless, impersonal Cosmic Principle.  Religious Taoists believe in a variety of gods.

Fisher, 2014, p. 178

Confucianism: There is no God, per se, in Confucianism.  Confucius has never been considered a god by his adherents. 

Fisher, 2014, pp. 192, 203-204.

Fisher, M.P. (2014) Living Religions  Pearson:  Upper Saddle River, NJ

Daoism: Human beings do not have a soul but may become immortal in Religious Taoism.  Human beings have a free will; they can learn to live in harmony with the Tao.

Fisher, 2014, pp. 182-183.

Confucianism: the purpose of existence is to reach one's highest potential as a human being. Through a rigorous process of self-cultivation that lasts a lifetime, one may eventually become a "perfected person." 
The faith in the possibility of ordinary human beings to become awe-inspiring sages and worthies is deeply rooted in the Confucian heritage (Confucius himself lived a rather ordinary life), and the insistence that human beings are teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor is typically Confucian.

Fisher, 2014, p. 203

Fisher, M.P. (2014) Living Religions  Pearson:  Upper Saddle River, NJ

Daoism: suffering and evil are inevitable in human life, and can promote learning and growth. A mistake is not a "sin," but an opportunity to learn and do better next time.

Confucianism: According to some interpretations of Confucianism, suffering and evil are inevitable in human life, and can promote learning and growth. A mistake is not a "sin," but an opportunity to learn and do better next time. Empathy for the suffering of others also provides motivation to grow morally, but not all humans are capable of empathy.

http://www.religionfacts.com/a-z-religion-index/confucianism.htm

http://www.religionfacts.com/taoism/index.htm

Daoism: Salvation for Daoism (absent the Buddhist influence) is a matter of participation in the eternal return of the natural world, a yielding to chaos followed by spontaneous creation, in a never-ending cycle.

Confucians: do not typically hold beliefs about the individual salvation or damnation of persons beyond this life.

http://www.religionfacts.com/a-z-religion-index/confucianism.htm

http://www.religionfacts.com/taoism/index.htm

Daoism: life and death are merely two aspects of reality, the unchanging Tao. Death is simply a transformation from being to non-being; from yang to yin. Taoism teaches that humans ought to accept life and death as complementary aspects of the Tao. Death should be neither feared nor desired.

Fisher, 2014, pp. 180-183

Confucianism: a meaningful life is one in which one develops one's innate moral potential to the fullest while fulfilling all of one's social obligations. At the same time, from a Confucian perspective, one cannot live fully in the present without being fully responsible to the past, both in terms of paying respect to one's ancestors and making the best of what they have left behind.

Fisher, 2014, p. 192

Fisher, M.P. (2014) Living Religions  Pearson:  Upper Saddle River, NJ

Daoism: Ch'i - Ch'i is a fundamental concept in Chinese philosophy and culture.

Death and Afterlife - In Taoism, life and death are merely two aspects of reality, the unchanging Tao. Death is simply a transformation from being to non-being; from yang to yin.

Immortals - The spiritual beings of primary importance in religious Taoism are the Immortals (Xian in Chinese).

Purpose of Life - The focus of most religious Taoism is attaining immortality.

The Tao - The ultimate reality in Taoism is the Tao, or Way.

There are no specific rituals or religious practices.

Confucianism:  is a set of philosophies and not seen as an actual religion.

Worship is the act of religious devotion to one or many theories.

Confucius had these philosophies and now many people respect and follow by his way of living.

Liturgy is a type of worship done publicly by a certain religious group.

Confucianism is neither a monotheistic religion nor a polytheistic religion.

It is more a system of ethics and social behavior.

These beliefs are believed and it is not necessarily believing in a God or Gods, rather than believing in Confucius' thoughts and practices.

One aspect that could make it polytheistic is the belief of honoring your ancestors before you.

Followers of Confucianism look to better themselves and their society. This is done through education and enlightenment. 

Confucius believed in Taoism. The Great Ultimate, or Tao, is the "change" everything occurs from. Yin (energy) and Yang (passive form) are the elements of our world. Combined, they have made the creation of our universe.

Worship includes respecting your elders, continuing the family by marrying and having children, and by bringing no shame or disgrace to the family.

The primary idea of Confucianism is to live and ideal moral life while on earth.

http://www.religionfacts.com/a-z-religion-index/confucianism.htm

http://www.religionfacts.com/taoism/index.htm

Daoism: The Lantern Festival - The Lantern Festival is a celebration of the first full moon of the year, and also the birthday of Tianguan, one of the Taoist gods responsible for good fortune. On this day, people walk the streets carrying lighted lanterns, and red lanterns of all sorts are released into the sky at various public places. As a tradition of Lantern Festival, people eat Tangyuan, a kind of dumpling made of sweet rice and rolled into Ping-Pong sized balls and filled with sweet fillings. Eating Tangyuan symbolizes family unity and happiness.

Tomb Sweeping Day - Tomb Sweeping Day is believed to have originated in the Tang Dynasty, with Emperor Xuanzong. He noticed that there were an abundance of overly extravagant ceremonies and festivals being enacted, in honor of various ancestors. As a way of putting an end to this over-zealous celebrating, he passed a decree which stated that such celebrations could only happen at the graves of the ancestors, and only on one day of the year, Quingming.

Dragon Boat Festival - The Dragon Boat Festival originated in the Zhou Dynasty, in honor of a man named Qu Yuan, who was a poet and statesman, and a minister to the Zhou Emperor. Qu Yuan was a wise and kind and honest man, who did much to eliminate the corruption rampant in the Zhou court.

The Chinese New Year - The Chinese New Year has been known as the main religious holiday in China. It involves burning paper statues of gods, allowing the spirits to fly up to heaven and report on the family's behavior. They are replaced with new statues.

Hungry Ghost Festival - It is said that hungry ghosts, (the dead who have not had a proper funeral), are let out of the underworld on this day. People try to claim the ghosts by making offerings, saying prayers, and entertaining them with musical events.

Confucianism:  ritual takes on a different meaning than that of most religions. Acts of everyday life are considered rituals. Some holidays are Easter Monday. Ching Ming festival is celebrated 106 days after the winter solstice and families visit their ancestors or relatives' graves. They also celebrate Confucius' birthday on September 28. Confucians do not celebrate specific Holy Days for Confucianism and they practice days from other religions.

Week 5

Shinto

Shinto came about in as early as the 6^th century B.C.E.

http://www.patheos.com/Library/Shinto.html

Kami are the spirits or phenomena that are worshipped in the religion of Shinto. They are elements in nature, animals, creationary forces in the universe, as well as spirits of the revered deceased. Many Kami are considered the ancient ancestors of entire clans, and some ancestors became Kami upon their death if they were able to embody the values and virtues of Kami in life. Traditionally great or charismatic leaders like the Emperor could be kami. In Shinto, Kami are not separate from nature, but are of nature, possessing positive and negative, good and evil characteristics. They are manifestations of Musubi, the interconnecting energy of the universe, and are considered exemplary of what humanity should strive towards. Kami are believed to be “hidden” from this world, and inhabit a complementary existence that mirrors our own.

Fisher, 1997, pp. 190-192.

Fisher, M.P. (1997) Living religions: An encyclopaedia of the world's faiths (Pbk. rev. ed.). London: I.B. Tauris.

In Shint? it is commonly said that “man is kami’s child.” First, this means that a person was given his life by kami and that his nature is therefore sacred. Second, it means that daily life is made possible by kami, and, accordingly, the personality and life of people are worthy of respect. An individual must revere the basic human rights of everyone (regardless of race, nationality, and other distinctions) as well as his own. The concept of original sin is not found in Shint?. On the contrary, man is considered to have a primarily divine nature.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/540856/Shinto/8493/Nature-of-man-and-other-beliefs

Purity is at the heart of Shinto's understanding of good and evil.

Impurity in Shinto refers to anything which separates us from kami, and from musubi, the creative and harmonizing power.

The things which make us impure are tsumi - pollution or sin.

Purity is so important in Shinto. Shinto does not accept that human beings are born bad or impure; in fact Shinto states that humans are born pure, and sharing in the divine soul.

Badness, impurity or sin are things that come later in life, and that can usually be got rid of by simple cleansing or purifying rituals.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/shinto/beliefs/purity.shtml

The concept of salvation is based on the belief that all living things have an essence, soul or spirit known as "kami." Rather than living in a glorified Heaven, kami live among us. Some kami are more powerful than others. Some are even deified. But all kami must be honored. People who die violently, lead unhappy lives, or have no family to care for their kami become hungry ghosts, causing trouble for the living.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/shinto/beliefs/purity.shtml

It is common for families to participate in ceremonies for children at a shrine, yet have a Buddhist funeral at the time of death mostly due to the negative Japanese conception of the afterlife and death as well as Buddhism's historical monopoly on funeral rites. In old Japanese legends, it is often claimed that the dead go to a place called yomi (??), a gloomy underground realm with a river separating the living from the dead mentioned in the legend of Izanami and Izanagi. This yomi is very close to the Greek Hades; however, later myths include notions of resurrection and even Elysium-like descriptions such as in the legend of Okuninushi and Susanoo. Shinto tends to hold negative views on death and corpses as a source of pollution called kegare. However, death is also viewed as a path towards apotheosis in Shintoism as can be evidenced by how legendary individuals become enshrined after death.

http://www.quora.com/What-does-the-Shinto-religion-believe-happens-to-them-after-death

Shinto rituals are a central component of most of the national festivals in Japan, as well as of the more specialized events at particular shrines and other sacred sites. Most often they are performed by male priests who are assisted by a female shrine functionary called a miko, who often is a shaman.

The most common type of ritual involves purification - symbolically purifying oneself or an object before interacting with the kami (Shinto gods). Purification is done with water (rinsing, washing, bathing) or with the priest's wand. Other common rituals include the formal reading of prayers from ancient collections, and making food and drink offerings to the kami (which is later shared in a communal meal). Again, these are done by priests. Other Shinto rituals are performed during smaller, more local or even private festivals. These mark stages of life, such as births, rites of passage in the early years of a child's life, marriages, and funerals.

Finally, there are common rituals performed by individuals when they visit shrines - ritual washing, making offerings, clapping hands, and bowing.

Important to remember here is that all these rituals are designed for communication with the gods, or kami. Sometimes that communication is one-way (from the human to the kami) in which people express thanks, make requests and offer praise to the kami. At other times, that communication is two-way (from human to kami and from kami to human) in which people use the priest or miko as a mediator between them and the kami to get answers to important questions or to learn solutions to problems in their lives.

Regardless, these rituals do for the Shinto community what other rituals do for the people of every other religion: provide a means of worshipping and encountering whatever is considered divine or "ultimate" in way that is meaningful and brings order to life in a world that often feels chaotic.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/shinto/beliefs/purity.shtml

Shinto rituals are usually just one part of a type of large public festival called a matsuri, which is the main kind of celebration in Shinto. Hundreds and thousands of them fill the calendar thought the year. They are community-oriented festival which marks all sorts of things: seasons in nature, the New Year, chrysanthemum blooms, cherry blossoms, events from the Shinto mythologies, Japanese history, agricultural traditions and more. Between these happenings, a number of important rituals are performed. About a month before the New Year, at the beginning of December, people traditionally put up a Kadomatsu - "entrance pine" - at their home. A combination of standing bamboo and pine branches, the Kadomatsu acts as a point of welcome for the Kami whose goodwill and blessings are being invoked. Nowadays in the cities, the entrance pine usually goes up the last week of December on either side of the doorways to houses, hotels, offices, bars and even bath houses. The shortening of the New Year celebration has been forced on modern people by the pressures of business life. Companies begin around the end of the first week with staff dressed in kimono (even banks do this) on the first day for ceremonial greetings. In the country areas, where the whole celebration was based on the patterns of a rice culture, New Year's festivities used to go on until January 15, Koshogatsu, literally "Little New Year," and sometimes continued into February. This can include house cleanings, consuming of cold dishes prepared, People sometimes visit their local shrines just after midnight, while others wait until daytime. At home, a family will clap their hands in front of the Kamidana, the shelf on which the miniature shrine is placed and make offerings to the Kami. Some people go out to watch the first sunrise of the year, hatsu-hi-node, while other simply go to a shrine the first two or three days of the year, hatsu-mode. People exchange visits, nenga, among friends and relatives and sends cards to each other, nengajo.

Children receive money, otoshidama, for the New Year and people involve themselves in the whole range of activities special to the New Year such as ladies in kimono playing a kind of badminton, men playing card and dice games and, in some rural areas, costumed men called Namahage visiting homes to see if the young are behaving well. New Year is busy, exciting and still highly colorful.

 Setsubun-no-hi is celebrated by the Setsubun festival. Setsubun means the day before the official calendar beginning of Spring. According to the old calendar, it marks the end of winter. People on that day at home throw beans to expel bad fortune and invoke the good. At Tsubaki, priests dress in classic costume and shrine members join in a procession for purification and then, from a great dais raised in front of the haiden, they throw packets of beans for believers and visitors to catch. As Guji of the Shrine, I shoot an arrow to break the power of misfortune and then we proceed to the ceremony. Several thousand people come that day. February 21st Toshi-goi-no-Matsuri is a festival known also as the Yakuyoke festival. Yakuyuoke means a talisman, or omamori, which is designed to ward off evil influences.

Week 6

Judaism

A Divine singular God made all that exists

Everything in the universe was created by God and only by God. Judaism completely rejects the dualistic notion that evil was created by Satan or some other deity. All comes from God. This follows directly from the fact that God has no physical form. As one rabbi explained it to me, God has no body, no genitalia. Therefore the very idea that God is male or female is patently absurd. We refer to God using masculine terms simply for convenience's sake, because Hebrew has no neutral gender; God is just and merciful, omnipresent, omnipotent, eternal, omniscient, holy and perfect.

Fisher, 2014, p. 279.

He is a single, whole, complete indivisible entity. He cannot be divided into parts or described by attributes. Any attempt to ascribe attributes to God is merely man's imperfect attempt to understand the infinite.

Humans were created in the image of God, meaning in his nature and essence. Humanity was formed with two impulses: a good impulse and an evil impulse. People have the ability to choose which impulse to follow: the yetzer tov or the yetzer ra. That is the heart of the Jewish understanding of free will. The Talmud notes that all people are descended from Adam, so no one can blame his own wickedness on his ancestry. On the contrary, we all have the ability to make our own choices, and we will all be held responsible for the choices we make.

Good and evil are spoken of as light and darkness in Judaism. Both were created by God. Humans have the capacity to make that choice for either good or selfless acts or the evil which is the desire to meet one’s own selfish needs and desires.

Fisher, 2014, pp. 279-280.

In the Jewish Bible salvation comes from the Lord and is a favor bestowed upon the nation as a whole. In Deuteronomy 28:23 and following, Moses reminds the children of Israel of the consequences of disobedience: dispersion and bondage among the nation, a desolate land, sufferings and hunger. Conversely, the following chapter states that if they repent their blessings shall be restored (Deut. 30:1-10).

Jewish teachings on the subject of afterlife are sparse: The Torah, the most important Jewish text, has no clear reference to afterlife at all.

“kosher” diet

Aside from its cosmetic and therapeutic functions, anointment was an important component of ritual formularies. The anointment of vassals was not a mere ceremonial trapping: "As oil penetrates your flesh, so may they [the gods] make this curse enter into your flesh" (D.J. Wiseman, The Vassal-Treaties of Esarhaddon (1958), lines 622–4, p. 78; cf. Ps. 109:18; for the use of oil in the making of a covenant

“Bar Mitzvah” literally means “son of the commandment.” “Bar” is “son” in Aramaic, which used to be the vernacular of the Jewish people. “Mitzvah” is “commandment” in both Hebrew and Aramaic. “Bat” is daughter in Hebrew and Aramaic. (The Ashkenazic pronunciation is “bas”)

Under Jewish Law, children are not obligated to observe the commandments; although they are encouraged to do so as much as possible to learn the obligations they will have as adults. At the age of 13 (12 for girls), children become obligated to observe the commandments. The Bar Mitzvah ceremony formally marks the assumption of that obligation, along with the corresponding right to take part in leading religious services, to count in a minyan (the minimum number of people needed to perform certain parts of religious services), to form binding contracts, to testify before religious courts and to marry.

A Jewish boy automatically becomes a Bar Mitzvah upon reaching the age of 13 years. No ceremony is needed to confer these rights and obligations. The popular bar mitzvah ceremony is not required, and does not fulfill any commandment. It is a relatively modern innovation, not mentioned in the Talmud, and the elaborate ceremonies and receptions that are commonplace today were unheard of as recently as a century ago. Wearing of a head covering (yarmulka, skullcaps, kippah [pl. kippot]) for men was only instituted in Talmudic times (approximately the second century CE). The first mention of it is in Tractate Shabbat, which discusses respect and fear of God. Some sources likened it to the High Priest who wore a hat (Mitznefet) to remind him something was always between him and God. Thus, wearing a kippah makes us all like the high priest and turns us into a "holy nation." The head covering is also a sign of humility for men, acknowledging what's "above" us (God).Star of David

There are too many prayers to be listed but many of them can be found at: http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/praytoc.html

Shabbat -Shabbat is considered the most important of all Jewish holidays. It is the day of rest and weekly observance of God's completion of creation. Starting on Friday night an hour before sunset, it lasts for 25 hours until sunset on Saturday night. Rosh Hashanah - During the fall when the days begin to shorten and the leaves begin to change, Jewish tradition encourages us to look inward as we prepare for the New Year ahead. The Jewish New Year (Rosh Hashanah) is a holiday marked by festive meals with foods symbolizing our hopes for the new year—such as apples dipped in honey for a sweet new year and pomegranates for a year of plenty—and a day spent in prayer or quiet meditation.

Yom Kippur-The most solemn day of the Jewish year, Yom Kippur, the Jewish Day of Atonement offers an entire day devoted to self–examination. Many spend the day in synagogue devoted to prayer and study while abstaining from food and drink. The goal is to begin the New Year with a clean slate.

Sukkot-This seven–day festival celebrates the fall harvest and also commemorates the time when the Hebrews dwelt in the Sinai wilderness on their way to the Promised Land of Israel. The holiday is celebrated by building (and then dwelling in) ceremonial huts called Sukkot, waving of four different plant species (palm, myrtle, willow and citron), and many food-filled festive gatherings in the Sukkah.

Shemini Atzeret-This holiday literally means the “8th day of assembly.” It is a festive day after the week-long festival of Sukkot, and is marked by the annual prayer for rain recited in synagogue. In Israel and in liberal (Reform, Reconstructionist, Renewal) communities outside of Israel it is combined with the holiday of Simchat Torah.

Simchat Torah-Simchat Torah marks the end and the beginning of the annual Torah reading cycle. Every week all over the world, the same Torah portion is read in Jewish communities. On Simchat Torah the cycle ends and begins again. This is accompanied by parading the Torah scrolls about and with singing and dancing.

Hanukkah-This beloved 8–day Jewish winter festival celebrates the miracle of a small cruse of oil when it burned for 8 days, instead of only one. It also celebrates the military victory of the Jewish Maccabees over the powerful Syrian Greek army in 167 BCE. The victory was followed by a rededication (Hanukkah) of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem. It is from this act that the holiday gets its name. 

Tu B’Shevat-This is the Jewish New Year of the Trees. Observances include planting of trees, purchasing trees to be planted in Israel, and a mystical Tu B'Shevat ritual meal that includes different colored wine (from white to red) and different kinds of fruits and nuts.

Purim-The name of this holiday means “lots”, so named for the lots that were drawn to determine a dark day in Jewish history. As luck would have it, those dark days never arrived, as the evil villian's plans were thwarted by the clever Jewish Queen Esther, whose story is recounted in the Biblical Scroll of Esther. Celebrations include a public reading of the scroll, giving gifts to friends and to the needy, dressing up in costume, eating a special triangle-shaped pastry, the hamantaschen, and the drinking of alcohol for those of drinking age.

Passover-This seven or eight day festival of freedom marks the Hebrew exodus from Egypt long ago. The story is told during a festive ritual meal called a “Seder.” During the festival, it is traditional to abstain from all foods containing leaven; that is, foods made from grain that have not been prepared according to a strict Passover cooking procedure. Among the grain foods that are permitted is matzah, unleavened bread that is baked before it has a chance to rise.

Yom HaShoah (Holocaust Memorial Day) - Jews all over the world mourn the loss of six million Jewish lives lost during the Holocaust as part of Hitler's genocidal “Final Solution.”

Yom HaZikaron (Israeli Memorial Day) - On this Memorial Day, the soldiers who have fallen fighting are commemorated for Israel’s independence and defending its security. This holiday falls the day before Israel's Independence Day.

Yom HaAtzmaut (Israeli Independence Day) - This holiday celebrates the independence of the Modern State of Israel. In Israel the day of Yom HaAtzmaut is marked with fireworks, barbeques, and outdoor revelry. For Jewish communities outside of Israel it is a time to gather and celebrate our pride and connection to the Jewish homeland.

Lag B’Omer - This holiday marks the 33rd day of the 49-day “Omer” period between Passover and Shavuot. This 7 week period called “the Omer” is traditionally a quiet time on the Jewish calendar, but Lag B’Omer, which occurs on the 33rd day, is an exception. Bonfires, outdoor parties and revelry rule the day, which is also a popular Jewish wedding date.

Shavuot-Shavuot is the holiday celebration of the giving of the Torah to the Jewish people. The celebration of Shavuot is also the Festival of First Fruits and Grains, a fulfillment of the promise of spring. The name means “weeks”, so named for the 7-week period from Passover to Shavuot. 

Tisha B’Av-An important fast day in the Jewish calendar is Tisha B’Av, the 9th day of the Hebrew month of Av. The day commemorates the destruction of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE and 70 CE.

Tu B’Av - Held six days after the fast day of Tisha B’Av comes a festival of love! A popular wedding date, the day is celebrated in the best way possible with wine, chocolate and roses!

Week 7

Christianity

God created everything in his infinite wisdom

Creation was purposeful, not arbitrary, and therefore the universe is not morally neutral, but fundamentally good. In this purposeful creation, everything and everyone is intrinsically valuable. God's design or purpose for creation reflects God's intention that all creatures enjoy perfect love and justice.

Very similar to the beliefs of Judaism he is the Supreme Being.

Fundamental to the Christian understanding of human nature is the belief that the first humans were created in the image of God.

The nature people were created with was good (cf. Gen. 1:31), but according to the Bible people were given a free will with which to choose for God or against him, and in the Garden of Eden Adam and Eve were persuaded by the serpent to rebel and as a result sin entered the world (cf. Gen. 3:1-19) and afflicted the human race.

Fisher, 2014, pp. 284, 333.

Christians have faith in a good and loving Creator who has a plan for creation that is also good and loving. This tenet of faith has prompted Christians to seek explanations or justifications for suffering. Human suffering takes many forms: emotional, natural, and moral. Loneliness, anxiety, and grief are examples of emotional suffering. Fires, tornados, earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunami, and physical illnesses (e.g., cancer) are examples of natural suffering. Moral suffering is brought on by the deliberate acts of fellow human beings to cause suffering, something Christians call a moral evil.

Christians believe that by their trust and belief in the Holy Bible and Jesus Christ, the son of the Supreme Being they will reach salvation.

According to Christian belief, salvation is made possible by the life, death, and resurrection of Christ, which in the context of salvation is referred to as the "atonement."

Fisher, 2014, pp. 330-331.

Christian beliefs about the afterlife vary slightly between denominations and individual Christians, but the vast majority of Christians believe heaven is a place where believers go upon dying in order to enjoy the presence of God as well as other believers. In heaven, people are also freed from sin and all its various manifestation, like suffering and pain. The Bible teaches that heaven is an actual place (e.g. John 14:1-6). Life there will have some continuity with life in the present world (e.g. people will have bodies like they do now); yet in other ways, heaven will be different than this present life (e.g. people will have "new" bodies, cf. 1 Cor. 15:35-49).

Many Christians also believe that the Bible teaches the existence of hell as a place of judgment and punishment (e.g. 2 Pet. 2:4). In several New Testament passages, the description of hell includes fire (e.g. Mark 9:43, James 3:6). Some Christians interpret the imagery of fire literally and believe people will experience the sensation of burning forever. Other Christians believe the fire imagery is a symbolic way of communicating severe punishment. And although a minority view, still other Christians believe the description of fire is literal, but that the punishment people experience is temporary, like an object that is eventually destroyed by flames

Roman Catholics believe in purgatory, which is a temporary place of punishment for Christians who have died with unconfessed sins. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states: "All who die in God's grace and friendship, but still imperfectly purified, are indeed assured of their eternal salvation; but after death they undergo purification, so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of heaven."

Many Christian rituals and religious practices vary between denomination, individual church and individual Christian, but some practices are common to virtually all forms of Christianity. Most Christians attend worship services at church on Sundays, which generally include singing, prayer and a sermon. Most Christian churches have a special ritual for ordination, or designating a person fit for a leadership position in the church. At home, most practicing Christians pray regularly and many read the Bible.

Nearly all Christians will have been baptized, either as an infant or as an adult, and regularly participate in communion (also called the Lord's Supper and the Eucharist). Baptism and communion are considered sacraments - sacred rituals instituted by Christ himself. The Catholic Church recognizes five additional sacraments, as well as many other distinctive practices that are known as "sacramentals" or "devotions" and include praying the rosary and going on pilgrimages. Both Catholic and Orthodox Churches have religious orders. The most distinctive practice of Orthodoxy is the emphasis on icons, although Catholics use them as well. The cross is important to Christianity as well as Jesus Christ’s depiction of being hanged upon that cross.

The feast days celebrate joyous historical events, such as the birth and resurrection of Christ, while the fast days provide a special opportunity to focus on self-reflection, self-discipline, and repentance. Some Christian holidays have come to have a considerable impact on western culture and traditions.

Brief History

Holidays have been a part of Christianity from the beginning, with Easter being the oldest.

The season of Advent (adventus, "coming") marks the beginning of the church year and the approach of Christmas.

All Saints' Day

is celebrated day after Halloween, the sacred day recalls the lives' of Christian saints.

Ash Wednesday

Is the first day of Lent, a period of fasting that leads up to Easter. Its central ritual is placing of ashes on the forehead.

Assumption Day celebrates the Roman Catholic belief of Mary's transfer into heaven

Boxing Day is celebrated in Great Britain, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, this was when servants and the poor were traditionally given gifts.

Christmas is the celebration of the birth of Jesus. The English word "Christmas" derives from the old English Christes maesse, or "Christ's mass."

Easter is a spring festival that celebrates the resurrection of Christ. It is the oldest Christian holiday and the most important day of the church year.

The celebration of Epiphany (epiphaneia, "manifestation") recalls the visit of the Magi, symbolizing Christ's manifestation to Gentiles.

Good Friday is the annual Christian remembrance of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ.

Lent is a 40-day period of fasting and repentance in preparation for Easter.

Mardi Gras

is celebrated on the last day before Lent, this is a day to enjoy one last feast before the 40-day fast.

Palm Sunday is the sixth Sunday of Lent and the last Sunday before Easter. It commemorates the triumphal entry of Jesus into Jerusalem.

Reformation Day celebrates the Protestant Reformation.

St. Andrew's Day marks the martyrdom of the apostle Andrew, brother to Saint Peter, and is especially associated with Scottish identity.

St. Patrick's Day

the Catholic feast day that honors St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland, is celebrated worldwide by the Irish, those of Irish descent, or "Irish for a day."

Sunday in Christianity, the day of the week devoted to rest and worship is Sunday, or the "Lord's Day."

Thanksgiving

celebrates a shared meal between Christian Pilgrims and Native Americans. It is not a religious holiday, but has an interesting, semi-religious history.

Twelfth Night made famous by the Shakespearean play, this marks the end of the Christmas season.

Valentine's Day is a celebration of romantic love. Although associated with a saint, modern Valentine's Day is a non-religious holiday.

Week 8

Islam

Islam believes that Jesus was a messenger of God; therefore the creation story is told in the Old Testament and the Hebrew Scriptures directly correlates to that taught in Islam.

God created Eve as an offshoot of Adam and placed them in a garden paradise. While living in paradise, Eve was tempted by a serpent who promised her wisdom if she would only eat a forbidden fruit from the tree of knowledge against God’s will. (The serpent is commonly interpreted as a manifestation of Satan.) Eve gave into the temptation, and her and Adam ate the forbidden fruit, thus ending their innocence and banishing them from the garden.

(Fisher, 2011, p.242)

Islam traces its ancestry back to Abraham, who was said to have two sons, Isma’il, and Isaac. Isma’il’s mother was Hagar a slave and Isaac’s mother was Sarah, the wife of Abraham. When Isaac was born, it is believed that Sarah banished Isma’il and his mother. Abraham took Hagar and their son to Mecca, and once there the Qur’an teaches that Abraham and Isma’il built the holiest sanctuary in Islam, the Ka’bah. God told Abraham that Ka’bah should be a place of pilgrimage.

(Fisher, 2011, pp. 381-383)

While Muslims believe in a God, Allah, they also believe that God had sent a messenger to tell his story, just like Moses in Judaism or Jesus in Christianity, Muslims believe that Muhammad is the messenger for the Islam religion. Although Muhammad is not to be worshiped, his story is paramount in Islam. Muhammad was born in a poor tribe and lost both of his parents at a very young age. As Muhammad aged and got married, he began to spend a lot of time in solitude, searching for an answer to his monotheistic beliefs towards religion. One night, Muhammad was visited by the archangel Gabriel and together they started to dictate the words that would become the Qur’an, the holy book of Islam. 

(Fisher, 2011, pp. 383-384)

One of the major differences between Christianity and Islam is that in Christianity God is said to have banished Adam and Eve from the garden paradise for eating the forbidden fruit. In doing so created the doctrine of original sin. Every human is born with sin and must pay observance to God and the teachings of Jesus to gain salvation.

Islam does not believe in original sin. When and if a person commits a sin, he alone is responsible for that sin.  Every person is responsible for his or her actions. Muslims do not believe that mankind is doomed to be punished for all of eternity because of a mistake made by Adam and Eve.

http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/3681/ 

“Then they both ate of that tree, and so their private parts appeared to them, and they began to stick on themselves the leaves from Paradise for their covering.  Thus did Adam disobey his Lord, so he went astray.  Then his Lord chose him, and turned to him with forgiveness and gave him guidance.”

Quran 20:121-122

Muslims rely heavily upon an idea, referred to as Unity, meaning there is one God.
“There is no god but God.” God is referred to by many names all of which are considered attributes of God such as al-Ali or the highest, or ar-Raqib, the watchful. Allah is the name that is used for God that encompasses all of these attributes. All of these names refer to the totality of God, the one being.

(Fisher, 2011 p. 392)

“Muslims believe that God is all-knowing and has intelligently created everything for a divine purpose, governed by fixed laws that assure that harmonious and wondrous working of all creation.”

(Fisher, 2011, p.393)

One of the major differences between Christianity and Islam is that in Christianity God is said to have banished Adam and Eve from the garden paradise for eating the forbidden fruit. In doing so created the doctrine of original sin. Every human is born with sin and must pay observance to God and the teachings of Jesus to gain salvation.

Islam does not believe in original sin. When and if a person commits a sin, he alone is responsible for that sin.  Every person is responsible for his or her actions. Muslims do not believe that mankind is doomed to be punished for all of eternity because of a mistake made by Adam and Eve.

http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/3681/ 

“Then they both ate of that tree, and so their private parts appeared to them, and they began to stick on themselves the leaves from Paradise for their covering.  Thus did Adam disobey his Lord, so he went astray.  Then his Lord chose him, and turned to him with forgiveness and gave him guidance.”

Quran 20:121-122

Muslims rely heavily upon an idea, referred to as Unity, meaning there is one God.
“There is no god but God.” God is referred to by many names all of which are considered attributes of God such as al-Ali or the highest, or ar-Raqib, the watchful. Allah is the name that is used for God that encompasses all of these attributes. All of these names refer to the totality of God, the one being.

(Fisher, 2011 p. 392)

“Muslims believe that God is all-knowing and has intelligently created everything for a divine purpose, governed by fixed laws that assure that harmonious and wondrous working of all creation.”

(Fisher, 2011, p.393)

One of the major differences between Christianity and Islam is that in Christianity God is said to have banished Adam and Eve from the garden paradise for eating the forbidden fruit. In doing so created the doctrine of original sin. Every human is born with sin and must pay observance to God and the teachings of Jesus to gain salvation.

Islam does not believe in original sin. When and if a person commits a sin, he alone is responsible for that sin.  Every person is responsible for his or her actions. Muslims do not believe that mankind is doomed to be punished for all of eternity because of a mistake made by Adam and Eve.

http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/3681/               

“Then they both ate of that tree, and so their private parts appeared to them, and they began to stick on themselves the leaves from Paradise for their covering.  Thus did Adam disobey his Lord, so he went astray.  Then his Lord chose him, and turned to him with forgiveness and gave him guidance.”

Quran 20:121-122

Muslims rely heavily upon an idea, referred to as Unity, meaning there is one God.
“There is no god but God.” God is referred to by many names all of which are considered attributes of God such as al-Ali or the highest, or ar-Raqib, the watchful. Allah is the name that is used for God that encompasses all of these attributes. All of these names refer to the totality of God, the one being.

(Fisher, 2011 p. 392)

“Muslims believe that God is all-knowing and has intelligently created everything for a divine purpose, governed by fixed laws that assure that harmonious and wondrous working of all creation.”

(Fisher, 2011, p.393)

Islam describes “salvation” as closeness with God and states that everyone will experience this closeness at different levels. Those who are purified souls will be able to share this closeness with him and will be rewarded greatly. They will be rewarded with castles, couches, fruit, sweetmeats, honey, beautiful virgin women, and immortal youth served from golden gobblers and platters.  

(Fisher, 2011, p. 395)

Muslims believe that after a period of repose in the grave, all humans will be resurrected and placed in front of God for a final judgment. The Qur’an says at the time of the final judgment; the world will end cataclysmically.

Hell will be a place for non-believers, those who have rejected faith in God and his messenger. People who are unjust and do not forbid evil. Hell will also be a place for those who have created a convent with God, but break it by not praying regularly and not being charitable.

Muslims describe hell using words like pus, searing winds, chains, food that chokes and fire fueled by humans.

Hell is described in the Qur’an as:

“It is a flaming fire. It drags them down by their scalps, and it shall call him who turned his back and amassed riches and covetously hoarded them.”

Islam believes that what you experience in the afterlife is a direct reflection on how you lived your life on earth. Their thoughts, actions, and moral quality become their outer reality. For those who are just and merciful they will awaken in a “Garden of bliss.”

(Fisher, 2011, pp. 394-396)

The most important and probably the most well-known practice in Islam is the Five Pillars of prayer. The five pillars are considered God’s Command and every Muslim should do their best to fulfill them.

The first pillar is a believing and professing of the unity of God, and the messenger, Muhammad.

The second pillar is five daily prayers. Each Muslim is to participate in these five daily prayers by facing Mecca and reciting a series of prayers and passages from the Qur’an.

The third pillar is what is referred to as Zakat, which means charity or almsgiving. Muslims believe that their prayers are only heard if they share with others. It is said that Muslims must donate 2.5 percent yearly to less fortunate Muslims.

The fourth pillar is fasting. Muslims are recommended to participate in multiple periods of fasting throughout the year but are only obligated to fast during Ramadan.

The fifth pillar is Haji or the pilgrimage to Mecca. All Muslims, who are physically and financially able, are expected to make the trip at least once in their lifetime.

(Fisher, 2011, pp. 396-400)

Many Muslim women wear hijab, which is considered to be worn for their protection. A hijab is a cloth that covers their entire body, except their hands, face, and feet. In Saudi Arabia, Muslim women have been ordered to be properly covered when out of their homes. This not only included the traditional hijab, but it also covers their faces, sometimes not even allowing slits for their eyes.

(Fisher, 2011, p. 423)

Ramadan is a special month of the year for over one billion Muslims throughout the world. It is a time for inner reflection, devotion to God, and self-control. Muslims think of it as a kind of tune-up for their spiritual lives.

A goal of fasting during Ramadan is it helps Muslims learn self –control. With fasting also comes a heightened spiritual awareness.

Another of the goals of fasting during Ramadan to experience what it is like to be hunger and, therefore, helps Muslims develop sympathy for the less fortune. Every Muslim is expected to participate in fasting as long as they are able. Sick people and women are sometimes excluded from the fasting due to health conditions.

From Dawn to Sunset

The daily period of fasting starts at the breaking of dawn and ends at the setting of the sun. In between -- that is, during the daylight hours -- Muslims totally abstain from food, drink, smoking, and marital sex. The usual practice is to have a pre-fast meal (suhoor) before dawn and a post-fast meal (iftar) after sunset.

Devotion to God

The last ten days of Ramadan are a time of special spiritual power as everyone tries to come closer to God through devotions and good deeds. The night on which the first verses of the Qur'an were revealed to the Prophet, known as the Night of Power (Lailat ul-Qadr), is taken to be the 27th night of the month. The Qur'an states that this night is better than a thousand months. Therefore, many Muslims spend the entire night in prayer.

Food in Ramadan

Since Ramadan is a special time, Muslims in many parts of the world prepares certain favorite foods during this month.

It is a common practice for Muslims to break their fast at sunset with dates (iftar), following the custom of Prophet Muhammad. This is followed by the sunset prayer, which is followed by dinner. Since Ramadan emphasizes community aspects and since everyone eats dinner at the same time, Muslims often invite one another to share in the Ramadan evening meal.

Some Muslims find that they eat less for dinner during Ramadan than at other times due to stomach contraction. However, as a rule, most Muslims experience little fatigue during the day since the body becomes used to the altered routine during the first week of Ramadan.

http://www.colostate.edu/orgs/MSA/events/Ramadan.html

Week 9

Sikhism

When Guru Nanak was thirty, his life was reportedly transformed after immer-

sion in a river, from which it is said he did not emerge for three days. He

could not be found until he suddenly appeared in town, radiant. According

to one account, he had been taken into the presence of God, who gave him

a bowl of milk to drink, saying that it was actually nectar (amrit) which

would give him “power of prayer, love of worship, truth and contentment.”

There is one God whom Guru Nanak perceived as formless, pervading everywhere.  The light of God is thought to shine fully through the Guru, the perfect

master. In Sikh belief, the light of God is also present in the Guru Granth

Sahib, the Holy Word of God, and in all of creation, in which Nam, the Holy

Name of God, dwells. God is not separate from this world. God pervades the

cosmos and thus can be found within everything.

In Sikh belief,

Nam carries intense spiritual power, capable of making a person fearless, steady, inwardly calm and strong in the face of any adversity, willing to serve without any reward, and extending love in all directions without any effort.

All people are to be treated equally, for God’s light dwells in all and ego is a major hindrance to God-realization

The purpose of life is to realize God within the world, through the everyday practices of work, worship, and charity, of

sacri?cing love.

Sikhism  has beliefs in common with Hinduism (such as

karma and reincarnation)

Morning and evening prayers, langar, the community meal, which is freely to all who come. For many occasions, teams of

people carry out Akhand Path, reading the entire Guru

Granth Sahib from start to ?nish within approximately

forty-eight hours, taking turns of two hours each.

Amrit ceremony – Festival of harvest

Week 10

New Religious Movements

Times of

rapid social change are particularly likely to spawn new religious movements,

for people seek the security of the spiritual amidst worldly chaos.

This depends on the sect of religion. Some can be based on the other religions like Christianity with one God where others can be based on religions that have hundreds of deities.

Many religions, including the largest world religions, teach self-denial

and surrender as cardinal virtues that help to vanquish the ego and allow one

to approach ultimate reality. The question for a spiritual person is where to

place one’s faith.

Some of the modern religion the majority

of humanity is destroyed for not obeying the Bible.

Some of the religions believe

that only the blood shed for them by Jesus can save them.

Some beliefs believe in the apocalypse and rapture while others in reincarnation, resurrection, and others shared views of a litany of other religions. Some believe that the unrepentant wicked endure eternal torment

rather than the everlasting unconsciousness

Varies from baptisms, blessings like those given by Abraham. Some read and recite holy books.

Depending on the specific religion, there is secret yoga practice of concentrating on the third eye

with attention to the inner sound and inner light.