Homework answers / question archive / SCHOOLING AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT BJORKLUND CHAPTER 11 TODAY ? Development of reading skills ? Cognitive development and reading ? Gender differences ? Children’s number and arithmetic concepts ? Variations in math proficiency ? Schooling ? Evolutionary Educational Psychology ? LOTS of call-backs to previous topics DEVELOPMENT OF READING SKILLS DEVELOPMENT OF READING SKILLS Stages of Learning to Read Stage 0 Birth – 1st grade Master prerequisites of reading Stage 1 First year of formal reading instruction Learn phonological recoding skills Stage 2 2nd-3rd grade Learn to read fluently, but reading is effortful Stage 3 4th – 8th grade Reading to learn Stage 4 Begins in high school years Truly proficient reading DEVELOPMENT OF READING SKILLS ? Matthew effect ? Difference between good and poor readers increases over time ? Children who are not proficient readers by 3rd grade are 4x more likely to drop out of school EMERGENT LITERACY ? The idea that there is a developmental continuum of reading skills ? Spans from birth until we become proficient readers ? Consists of… ? Skills, knowledge, attitudes that are developmental precursors to conventional forms of reading or writing ? Environments that support this development EMERGENT LITERACY – 9 COMPONENTS 1

SCHOOLING AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT BJORKLUND CHAPTER 11 TODAY ? Development of reading skills ? Cognitive development and reading ? Gender differences ? Children’s number and arithmetic concepts ? Variations in math proficiency ? Schooling ? Evolutionary Educational Psychology ? LOTS of call-backs to previous topics DEVELOPMENT OF READING SKILLS DEVELOPMENT OF READING SKILLS Stages of Learning to Read Stage 0 Birth – 1st grade Master prerequisites of reading Stage 1 First year of formal reading instruction Learn phonological recoding skills Stage 2 2nd-3rd grade Learn to read fluently, but reading is effortful Stage 3 4th – 8th grade Reading to learn Stage 4 Begins in high school years Truly proficient reading DEVELOPMENT OF READING SKILLS ? Matthew effect ? Difference between good and poor readers increases over time ? Children who are not proficient readers by 3rd grade are 4x more likely to drop out of school EMERGENT LITERACY ? The idea that there is a developmental continuum of reading skills ? Spans from birth until we become proficient readers ? Consists of… ? Skills, knowledge, attitudes that are developmental precursors to conventional forms of reading or writing ? Environments that support this development EMERGENT LITERACY – 9 COMPONENTS 1

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SCHOOLING AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT BJORKLUND CHAPTER 11 TODAY ? Development of reading skills ? Cognitive development and reading ? Gender differences ? Children’s number and arithmetic concepts ? Variations in math proficiency ? Schooling ? Evolutionary Educational Psychology ? LOTS of call-backs to previous topics DEVELOPMENT OF READING SKILLS DEVELOPMENT OF READING SKILLS Stages of Learning to Read Stage 0 Birth – 1st grade Master prerequisites of reading Stage 1 First year of formal reading instruction Learn phonological recoding skills Stage 2 2nd-3rd grade Learn to read fluently, but reading is effortful Stage 3 4th – 8th grade Reading to learn Stage 4 Begins in high school years Truly proficient reading DEVELOPMENT OF READING SKILLS ? Matthew effect ? Difference between good and poor readers increases over time ? Children who are not proficient readers by 3rd grade are 4x more likely to drop out of school EMERGENT LITERACY ? The idea that there is a developmental continuum of reading skills ? Spans from birth until we become proficient readers ? Consists of… ? Skills, knowledge, attitudes that are developmental precursors to conventional forms of reading or writing ? Environments that support this development EMERGENT LITERACY – 9 COMPONENTS 1. Language – Children need to be versatile in their spoken language before they can read it 2. Conventions of print – e.g., reading from left to right 3. Knowledge of letters – be able to identify letters 4. Linguistic awareness – recognize linguistic units, such as phonemes, syllables, and words 5. Phoneme-grapheme correspondence – figure out how sounds correspond to written letters 6. Emergent reading – “pretending” to read 7. Emergent writing – “pretending” to write 8. Print motivation – interest in reading and writing 9. Other cognitive skills – many other skills influence a child’s reading ability (such as, memory) COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND READING ? Letter knowledge ? Connection between letter knowledge and later reading ? Must master “sounding out” words before reaching proficient reading ? Phonemic awareness ? Knowledge that words consist of separable sounds ? Preschool children generally haven’t grasped this yet ? Causal relationship between phonemic awareness and reading proficiency ? Sensitivity to rhymes leads to phonemic awareness COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND READING ? Rapid automatized naming (RAN) ? Executive function – speed of processing, working memory ? “Faster” children display better reading skills ? Phonological recoding ? Children taught the sound of each letter and how to combine them into words (phonics) ? Ease of learning to read is related to how obvious phoneme-grapheme correspondence is in that language ? Working memory ? Reading comprehension related to how much info children can hold in working memory at a time COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND READING ? Dyslexia ? Reading disabilities occurring when a child has great difficulty learning to read despite an average intelligence ? Affects ~20% of the population ? Most common neurocognitive learning disorder ? Can run in families ? Best predictor of reading difficulty is phonological processing → phonemegrapheme correspondence GENDER DIFFERENCES IN READING AND VERBAL ABILITIES ? Girls typically outperform boys on tests of verbal, language, and/or reading ability ? Effect may be declining ? Same findings worldwide CHILDREN’S NUMBER AND ARITHMETIC CONCEPTS CHILDREN’S NUMBER AND ARITHMETIC CONCEPTS Integrative theory of numerical development (Siegler & Lortie-Forgues, 2014) 1. Representing non-symbolic numbers with increasing precision 2. Linking nonsymbolic and symbolic numerical representations 3. Extending the range of numbers that can be accurately represented 4. Representing numbers other than whole numbers 5 DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTUAL AND PROCEDURAL MATHEMATICAL KNOWLEDGE ? Conceptual – understanding the principles underlying a particular mathematical operation ? Instruction that explains WHY operations work the way they do 72 (60+12) – (60+9) = (60-60) + (12-9) = 3 -69 3 ? Procedural – use of basic operations involved in solving a math problem 72= (10+10+10…+2) → (10+10+10…+12) 69=(10+10+10…+9) → (10+10+10…+9) ? Instruction that focuses on teaching students to solve problems by giving them a series of steps to do 72 -69 3 Borrow from the 7 → 12-9=3 → 6-6=0 DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTUAL AND PROCEDURAL MATHEMATICAL KNOWLEDGE Conservation of Number ? Piaget ? Show children a set of items (e.g., black jelly beans) ? Ask child to take white jelly beans from container until # of black and white beans are equal ? Arrange beans in 2 rows based on color ? Experimenter spreads out line of white beans so it is a longer line than black beans ? “Do these 2 rows still have the same number of jelly beans?” ? Yes = concrete operational stage ? No = preoperational stage CONSERVATION OF NUMBER ? Stage 1 – inability to consistently establish a 1-to-1 correspondence between 2 sets of items ? Stage 2 – can establish intuitive 1-to-1 correspondence but judgements of equivalence don’t last long ? Stage 3 – concrete operational CONSERVATION OF NUMBER Learning to Count – 5 principles (Gelman & Gallistel, 1978) 1. One-one: each item in array is associated with one and only one number name 2. Stable-order: number names must be in stable, repeatable order 3. Cardinal: final number in series represents quantity of set (4 yrs.) 4. Abstraction: above principles can be applied to any array, physical or nonphysical 5. Order-irrelevant: order in which things are counted is irrelevant “How-to” 2.5 years old DEVELOPMENT OF ARITHMETIC STRATEGIES (+ & -) ? Sum strategy ? Count from 1 to the first addend, then from 1 to the second addend, then counting them together ? 3 + 5 = 1, 2, 3…1, 2, 3, 4, 5…1, 2, 3…4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ? Highly accurate, but takes a lot of time and is ineffective with larger problems Effortful ? Min strategy ? Start with larger addend and add up from there ? 3 + 5 = 5…6, 7, 8 ? Quicker and easier than sum strategy ? Fact retrieval ? Simple operations become stored in long-term memory and can be retrieved as with any other information ? Decomposition ? Transforming the original problem into 2+ simpler problems (e.g., 101 + 57 = 100 + (57+1) = 158) ? Emerges during elementary school Automatic DEVELOPMENT OF ARITHMETIC STRATEGIES Adaptive Strategy Choice Model (Siegler, 1996, 2006) ? Arithmetic strategy use is not a stagelike progression ? Children use variety of strategies at any given age ? But sophistication of strategies increases with age DO GAMES HELP CHILDREN LEARN ARITHMETIC STRATEGIES? ? Chutes and Ladders study ? Spinner replaced with pair of dice ? 5 yr. olds used sum strategy → parents scaffolded children to min strategy and/or fact retrieval ? Number board game with low-income children (4-5 yr. olds) ? Squares either different colors OR numbered 1- 10 ? 1 hr. of gameplay → significant improvements in numerical knowledge ? Gains present 9 weeks later DEVELOPMENT OF ARITHMETIC STRATEGY ? Starts simple and increases in complexity as basic cognitive abilities improve ? Working memory ? Processing speed ? Metacognition ? New & efficient strategies are used more often, but simpler strategies still stick around ? Children learn these strategies in school, but begin learning them at home VARIATIONS IN DEVELOPING MATHEMATICAL PROFICIENCY MATH DISABILITIES ? Developmental dyscalculia ? ~5-10% of school-age children ? Math achievement substantially below age level ? Display poor procedural knowledge (i.e., knowing the rules of counting) ? Memory-retrieval, working memory, and speed of processing deficits ? Similar to reading-disabled children ? Substantial overlap of diagnoses, but is still sometimes domain specific ? Math & reading facts represented in semantic memory ? Disabilities reflect difficulties in representation and retrieval of semantic information from long-term memory CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS ? Unschooled children ? Brazil → children possess high level of computational skills but only when problems are tied to real-life scenarios ? Complexity of purchase dependent on how skilled parent perceived child to be (scaffolding) ? Academic performance by American and Asian schoolchildren ? Number language (eleven v. ten-one) → preschool children in Asia outperform American preschool children ? Chinese and Japanese children spend more time on mathematics in and out of classroom → cultural views on education GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICAL ABILITY ? Girls tend to do better than boys in math at all academic levels ? But girls tend to perform better in all subjects, while boys tend to score higher on standardized tests ? Historically, boys start to outperform girls in math in high school and college ? Greatest differences between genders seen at highest ability levels ? Males more likely to be represented among top percentiles of mathematics ability ? Stereotype threat – problem in which people are at risk for conforming to stereotypes about their group ? Observed in children as young as 5 years old ? Gap in math performance is decreasing ? Cultural and curriculum shifts SCHOOLING AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT EFFECTS OF SCHOOLING VS. AGE ON INTELLIGENCE Cut-off method: compare children who just made the kindergarten start date to children who just missed it • Two groups are the same age but differ in amount of schooling 1 year of schooling has greater effects than 1 year of age on… 1 year of age has greater effects than 1 year of schooling on… ? Phonological awareness ? Subsyllabic segmentation (i.e., grasp) ? Free-recall memory ? Conservation of number ? Accuracy in mental arithmetic ? Use of simple arithmetic strategies ? Ability to understand complex sentences with longer ? Gist recall of stories subjects ? Knowledge of alphabet ? Ability to use causal structure in recalling stories ? IQ ? Ability to understand use of pronouns in sentences ? Vocabulary ? Cultural knowledge EFFECTS OF SCHOOLING VS. AGE ON INTELLIGENCE ? IQ tests are based on a person’s age only ? Should this be the case? (Probably not) ? Changes in different cognitive skills follow different developmental paths ? Large degree of domain specificity in the timing, magnitude, and nature of changes EVOLUTIONARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY EVOLUTIONARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY ? Children’s thinking is influenced by evolved psychological biases ? But they sometimes conflict with modern society ? Formal education is necessary ? Teaching the new technological skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic ? New, different skills are required for survival PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTIONARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY ? Biologically secondary abilities associated with scientific, technological, and academic advances emerged from the biologically primary abilities associated with folk physics, biology, and psychology. ? Schools emerged in societies to fill the gap between folk knowledge and needed technological skills. ? The purpose of schools is to organize the activities of children so they can acquire the biologically secondary abilities that close this gap. PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTIONARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY ? Biologically secondary abilities are built from biologically primary abilities and components of general intelligence, evolved to deal with environmental variation and novelty. ? Children are inherently motivated to engage in activities that increase their folk knowledge but are not inherently motivated to engage in activities that will promote secondary learning. ? There is a need for direct instruction for children to learn most biologically secondary abilities. COSTS AND BENEFITS OF ACADEMIC PRESCHOOLS Developmentally appropriate vs. direct-instruction programs ? Developmentally appropriate programs associated with… ? Higher measures on cognitive ability during elementary ? Higher grades in 4th grade ? Less stress and test anxiety ? Liking school ? More creativity ? Higher rating of own intellectual ability ? Less dependent on adults for permission and approval ? Greater pride in accomplishments ? Higher expectation of success on school-like tasks ? Chose more challenging math problems to perform ? Less worried about school than directinstruction COSTS AND BENEFITS OF ACADEMIC PRESCHOOLS ? Discovery learning vs. pedagogical learning ? Introduce a novel toy to children and model a specific set of behaviors to produce a specific outcome ? 3 groups – instruction group, no-instruction group, and no-demonstration group ? Children in instruction group spent more time playing with the toy’s one function they were shown ? But overall played with the toy less ? Discovered fewer functions of the toy “EDUCATIONAL” DVDS AND VIDEOS FOR INFANTS ? Video deficit effect – children under 2 years of age watching a video model remember only half as many actions as children who observe a live model ? Related to ability to transfer between 2D and 3D displays and lack of representational insight ? Effect seen for touchscreens (Zack et al., 2009) and picture books (Ganea, Bloom Pickard, & DeLoache, 2008) ? Very little research suggests that educational software/DVDs for infants actually help ? …and some research suggests it is harmful ? American Academy of Pediatrics – Media and Young Minds ? Associated with smaller vocabulary PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ? Kindergarten, 2nd, and 4th grade children (Pelligrini et al., 1995) ? Delayed recess for some children by 30min., 2 days a week ? Children significantly more attentive after recess than before ? Effects of delayed recess more significant for younger children ? Correlations between physical activity and EF (Hillman et al., 2009) ? 9-year-olds assessed on physical fitness (aerobic capacity) ? More physically fit children had greater EF abilities Name: SID: Date: Week#: Topic Reflection Paragraph #1 (something new, interesting, surprising) Paragraph #2* (questions or something you are confused about) *If the content for this week consisted of instructional videos (Weeks 1 and 10), only complete Paragraph 2.