Fill This Form To Receive Instant Help

Help in Homework
trustpilot ratings
google ratings


Homework answers / question archive / CHAPTER 16 Writing Proposals Chapter Introduction Understanding the Process of Writing Proposals FOCUS ON PROCESS: Proposals The Logistics of Proposals INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL PROPOSALS SOLICITED AND UNSOLICITED PROPOSALS The “Deliverables” of Proposals RESEARCH PROPOSALS GOODS AND SERVICES PROPOSALS Persuasion and Proposals UNDERSTANDING CONTEXTS DESCRIBING WHAT YOU PLAN TO DO DEMONSTRATING YOUR PROFESSIONALISM GUIDELINES: Demonstrating Your Professionalism in a Proposal ETHICS NOTE: Writing Honest Proposals Writing a Proposal The Structure of the Proposal SUMMARY INTRODUCTION GUIDELINES: Introducing a Proposal PROPOSED PROGRAM QUALIFICATIONS AND EXPERIENCE DOCUMENT ANALYSIS Activity: Writing the Proposed Program DOCUMENT ANALYSIS Activity: Marketing Proposal Presentation BUDGET APPENDIXES TASK SCHEDULE TECH TIP: Why and How to Create a Gantt Chart DESCRIPTION OF EVALUATION TECHNIQUES Sample Internal Proposal WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 16: Writing an Introduction for a Proposal Understanding the Process of Writing Proposals Writing a proposal calls for the same process of planning, drafting, revising, editing, and proofreading that you use for other kinds of documents

CHAPTER 16 Writing Proposals Chapter Introduction Understanding the Process of Writing Proposals FOCUS ON PROCESS: Proposals The Logistics of Proposals INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL PROPOSALS SOLICITED AND UNSOLICITED PROPOSALS The “Deliverables” of Proposals RESEARCH PROPOSALS GOODS AND SERVICES PROPOSALS Persuasion and Proposals UNDERSTANDING CONTEXTS DESCRIBING WHAT YOU PLAN TO DO DEMONSTRATING YOUR PROFESSIONALISM GUIDELINES: Demonstrating Your Professionalism in a Proposal ETHICS NOTE: Writing Honest Proposals Writing a Proposal The Structure of the Proposal SUMMARY INTRODUCTION GUIDELINES: Introducing a Proposal PROPOSED PROGRAM QUALIFICATIONS AND EXPERIENCE DOCUMENT ANALYSIS Activity: Writing the Proposed Program DOCUMENT ANALYSIS Activity: Marketing Proposal Presentation BUDGET APPENDIXES TASK SCHEDULE TECH TIP: Why and How to Create a Gantt Chart DESCRIPTION OF EVALUATION TECHNIQUES Sample Internal Proposal WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 16: Writing an Introduction for a Proposal Understanding the Process of Writing Proposals Writing a proposal calls for the same process of planning, drafting, revising, editing, and proofreading that you use for other kinds of documents

Economics

CHAPTER 16 Writing Proposals Chapter Introduction Understanding the Process of Writing Proposals FOCUS ON PROCESS: Proposals The Logistics of Proposals INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL PROPOSALS SOLICITED AND UNSOLICITED PROPOSALS The “Deliverables” of Proposals RESEARCH PROPOSALS GOODS AND SERVICES PROPOSALS Persuasion and Proposals UNDERSTANDING CONTEXTS DESCRIBING WHAT YOU PLAN TO DO DEMONSTRATING YOUR PROFESSIONALISM GUIDELINES: Demonstrating Your Professionalism in a Proposal ETHICS NOTE: Writing Honest Proposals Writing a Proposal The Structure of the Proposal SUMMARY INTRODUCTION GUIDELINES: Introducing a Proposal PROPOSED PROGRAM QUALIFICATIONS AND EXPERIENCE DOCUMENT ANALYSIS Activity: Writing the Proposed Program DOCUMENT ANALYSIS Activity: Marketing Proposal Presentation BUDGET APPENDIXES TASK SCHEDULE TECH TIP: Why and How to Create a Gantt Chart DESCRIPTION OF EVALUATION TECHNIQUES Sample Internal Proposal WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 16: Writing an Introduction for a Proposal Understanding the Process of Writing Proposals Writing a proposal calls for the same process of planning, drafting, revising, editing, and proofreading that you use for other kinds of documents. The Focus on Process box on the next page presents an overview of this process. FOCUS ON PROCESS: Proposals When writing a proposal, pay special attention to these steps in the writing process. PLANNING Consider your readers’ knowledge about and attitudes toward what you are proposing. Use the techniques discussed in Chapters 5 and 6 to learn as much as you can about your readers’ needs and about the subject. Also consider whether you have the personnel, facilities, and equipment to do what you propose to do. DRAFTING Collaboration is critical for large proposals because no one person has the time and expertise to do all the work. See Chapter 4 for more about collaboration. In writing the proposal, follow the instructions in any request for proposal (RFP) or information for bid (IFB) from the prospective customer. If there are no instructions, follow the structure for proposals outlined in this chapter. REVISING External proposals usually have a firm deadline. Build in time to revise, edit, and proofread the proposal thoroughly and still get it to readers on time. See the Writer’s Checklist at the end of this chapter. EDITING See Chapter 10 for advice on writing correct and effective sentences. PROOFREADING See Appendix, Part C, for proofreading tips. The Logistics of Proposals Proposals can be classified as either internal or external; external proposals are either solicited or unsolicited. Figure 16.1 shows the relationships among these four terms. FIGURE 16.1 The Logistics of Proposals INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL PROPOSALS Internal proposals are submitted to the writer’s own organization; external proposals are submitted to another organization. Internal Proposals An internal proposal is an argument, submitted within an organization, for carrying out an activity that will benefit the organization. An internal proposal might recommend that the organization conduct research, purchase a product, or change some aspect of its policies or procedures. For example, while working on a project in the laboratory, you realize that if you had a fiber-curl measurement system, you could do your job better and faster. The increased productivity would save your company the cost of the system in a few months. Your supervisor asks you to write a memo describing what you want, why you want it, what you’re going to do with it, and what it costs; if your request seems reasonable and the money is available, you’ll likely get the new system. Often, the scope of a proposal determines its format. A request for a small amount of money might be conveyed orally or by email or a brief memo. A request for a large amount, however, is likely to be presented in a formal report. External Proposals No organization produces all the products or provides all the services it needs. Websites need to be designed, written, and maintained; inventory databases need to be created; facilities need to be constructed. Sometimes projects require unusual expertise, such as sophisticated market analyses. Because many companies supply such products and services, most organizations require a prospective supplier to compete for the business by submitting a proposal, a document arguing that it deserves the business. SOLICITED AND UNSOLICITED PROPOSALS External proposals are either solicited or unsolicited. A solicited proposal is submitted in response to a request from the prospective customer. An unsolicited proposal is submitted by a supplier who believes that the prospective customer has a need for goods or services. Solicited Proposals When an organization wants to purchase a product or service, it publishes one of two basic kinds of statements: An information for bid (IFB) is used for standard products. When a state agency needs desktop computers, for instance, it informs computer manufacturers of the configuration it needs. All other things being equal, the supplier that offers the lowest bid for a product with that configuration wins the contract. When an agency solicits bids for a specific brand and model, the solicitation is sometimes called a request for quotation (RFQ). A request for proposal (RFP) is used for more customized products or services. For example, if the Air Force needs an “identification, friend or foe” system, the RFP it publishes might be a long and detailed set of technical specifications. The supplier that can design, produce, and deliver the device most closely resembling the specifications — at a reasonable price — will probably win the contract. Most organizations issue IFBs and RFPs in print and online. Government solicitations are published on the FedBizOpps website. Figure 16.2 (on page 426) shows a portion of an RFQ. FIGURE 16.2 Excerpt from an RFQ Unsolicited Proposals An unsolicited proposal is like a solicited proposal except that it does not refer to an RFP. In most cases, even though the potential customer did not formally request the proposal, the supplier was invited to submit the proposal after people from the two organizations met and discussed the project. Because proposals are expensive to write, suppliers are reluctant to submit them without assurances that they will be considered carefully. Thus, the word unsolicited is only partially accurate. The “Deliverables” of Proposals A deliverable is what a supplier will deliver at the end of a project. Deliverables can be classified into two major categories: research or goods and services. RESEARCH PROPOSALS In a research proposal, you are promising to perform research and then provide a report about it. For example, a biologist for a state bureau of land management writes a proposal to the National Science Foundation requesting resources to build a window-lined tunnel in the forest to study tree and plant roots and the growth of fungi. The biologist also wishes to investigate the relationship between plant growth and the activity of insects and worms. The deliverable will be a report submitted to the National Science Foundation and, perhaps, an article published in a professional journal. Research proposals often lead to two other applications: progress reports and recommendation reports. After a proposal has been approved and the researchers have begun work, they often submit one or more progress reports, which tell the sponsor of the project how the work is proceeding. Is it following the plan of work outlined in the proposal? Is it going according to schedule? Is it staying within budget? At the end of the project, researchers prepare a recommendation report, often called a final report, a project report, a completion report, or simply a report. A recommendation report tells the whole story of a research project, beginning with the problem or opportunity that motivated it and continuing with the methods used in carrying it out, the results, and the researchers’ conclusions and recommendations. For more about progress reports and recommendation reports, see Ch. 17, p. 454, and Ch. 18. People carry out research projects to satisfy their curiosity and to advance professionally. Organizations often require that their professional employees carry out research and publish in appropriate journals or books. Government researchers and university professors, for instance, are expected to remain active in their fields. Writing proposals is one way to get the resources — time and money for travel, equipment, and assistants — to carry out research. GOODS AND SERVICES PROPOSALS A goods and services proposal is an offer to supply a tangible product (a fleet of automobiles), a service (building maintenance), or some combination of the two (the construction of a building). A vast network of goods and services contracts spans the working world. The U.S. government, the world’s biggest customer, spent over $270 billion in 2015 buying military equipment from organizations that submitted proposals (USAspending.gov, 2016). But goods and services contracts are by no means limited to government contractors. An auto manufacturer might buy its engines from another manufacturer; a company that makes spark plugs might buy its steel and other raw materials from another company. Another kind of goods and services proposal requests funding to support a local organization. For example, a women’s shelter might receive some of its funding from a city or county but might rely on grants from private philanthropies. Typically, an organization such as a shelter would apply for a grant to fund increased demand for its services because of a natural disaster or an economic slowdown in the community. Or it might apply for a grant to fund a pilot program to offer job training at the shelter. Most large corporations have philanthropic programs offering grants to help local colleges and universities, arts organizations, and social-service agencies. Persuasion and Proposals A proposal is an argument. You must convince readers that the future benefits will outweigh the immediate and projected costs. Basically, you must persuade your readers of three things: that you understand the context: what your readers need that you have already determined what you plan to do and that you are able to do it that you are a professional and are committed to fulfilling your promises For more about persuasion, see Ch. 8. UNDERSTANDING CONTEXTS The most crucial element of the proposal is the definition of the problem or opportunity to which the proposed project responds. Although this point seems obvious, people who evaluate proposals agree that the most common weakness they see is an inadequate or inaccurate understanding of the problem or opportunity. For more about analyzing your audience, see Ch. 5. Internal Contexts Writing an internal proposal is both simpler and more complicated than writing an external one. It is simpler because you have greater access to internal readers than you do to external readers and you can get information more easily. However, it is more complicated because you might find it hard to understand the situation in your organization. Some colleagues will not tell you that your proposal is a long shot or that your ideas might threaten someone in the organization. Before you write an internal proposal, discuss your ideas with as many potential readers as you can to learn what those in the organization really think of them. External Contexts When you receive an RFP, study it thoroughly. If you don’t understand something in it, contact the organization. People there will be happy to clarify it: a proposal based on misunderstood needs wastes everyone’s time. When you write an unsolicited proposal, analyze your audience carefully. How can you define the problem or opportunity so that readers will understand it? Keep in mind readers’ needs and, if possible, their backgrounds. Concentrate on how the problem has decreased productivity or quality or how your ideas would create new opportunities. When you submit an unsolicited proposal, your task in many cases is to convince readers that a need exists. Even if you have reached an understanding with some of your potential customer’s representatives, your proposal will still have to persuade other officials in the company. Most readers will reject a proposal as soon as they realize that it doesn’t address their needs. When you are preparing a proposal to be submitted to an organization in another culture, keep in mind the following six suggestions (Newman, 2011): Understand that what makes an argument persuasive can differ from one culture to another. Paying attention to the welfare of the company or the community might be more persuasive than offering a low bottom-line price. Representatives of an American company were surprised to learn that the Venezuelan readers of their proposal had selected a French company whose staff “had been making personal visits for years, bringing their families, and engaging in social activities long before there was any question of a contract” (Thrush, 2000). Budget enough time for translating. If your proposal has to be translated into another language, build in plenty of time. Translating long technical documents is a lengthy process because, even though some of the work can be done by computer software, the machine translation needs to be reviewed by native speakers of the target language. Use simple graphics, with captions. To reduce the chances of misunderstanding, use a lot of simple graphics, such as pie charts and bar graphs. Include captions so that readers can understand the graphics easily, without having to look through the text to see what each graphic means. For more about graphics, see Ch. 12. Write short sentences, using common vocabulary. Short sentences are easier to understand than long sentences. Choose words that have few meanings. For example, use the word right as the opposite of left; use correct as the opposite of incorrect. Use local conventions regarding punctuation, spelling, and mechanics. Be aware that these conventions differ from place to place, even in the English-speaking world. Ask if the prospective customer will do a read-through. A read-through is the process of reading a draft of a proposal to look for any misunderstandings due to language or cultural differences. Why do prospective customers do this? Because it’s in everyone’s interest for the proposal to respond clearly to the customer’s needs. DESCRIBING WHAT YOU PLAN TO DO Once you have shown that you understand what needs to be done and why, describe what you plan to do. Convince your readers that you can respond effectively to the situation you have just described. Discuss procedures and equipment you would use. If appropriate, justify your choices. For example, if you say you want to do ultrasonic testing on a structure, explain why, unless the reason is obvious. Present a complete picture of what you would do from the first day of the project to the last. You need more than enthusiasm and good faith; you need a detailed plan showing that you have already started to do the work. Although no proposal can anticipate every question about what you plan to do, the more planning you have done before you submit the proposal, the greater the chances you will be able to do the work successfully if it is approved. DEMONSTRATING YOUR PROFESSIONALISM Once you have shown that you understand readers’ needs and can offer a well-conceived plan, demonstrate that you are the kind of person (or that yours is the kind of organization) that is committed to delivering what you promise. Convince readers that you have the pride, ingenuity, and perseverance to solve the problems that are likely to occur. In short, show that you are a professional. GUIDELINES: Demonstrating Your Professionalism in a Proposal In your proposal, demonstrate your ability to carry out the project by providing four kinds of information: Credentials and work history. Show that you know how to do this project because you have done similar ones. Who are the people in your organization with the qualifications to carry out the project? What equipment and facilities do you have that will enable you to do the work? What management structure will you use to coordinate the activities and keep the project running smoothly? Work schedule. Sometimes called a task schedule, a work schedule is a graph or chart that shows when the various phases of the project will be carried out. The work schedule reveals more about your attitudes toward your work than about what you will be doing on any given day. A detailed work schedule shows that you have tried to foresee problems that might threaten the project. Quality-control measures. Describe how you will evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of your work. Quality- control procedures might consist of technical evaluations carried out periodically by the project staff, on-site evaluations by recognized authorities or by the prospective customer, or progress reports. Budget. Most proposals conclude with a detailed budget, a statement of how much the project will cost. Including a budget is another way of showing that you have done your homework on a project. ETHICS NOTE WRITING HONEST PROPOSALS When an organization approves a proposal, it needs to trust that the people who will carry out the project will do it professionally. Over the centuries, however, dishonest proposal writers have perfected a number of ways to trick prospective customers into thinking the project will go smoothly: saying that certain qualified people will participate in the project, even though they will not saying that the project will be finished by a certain date, even though it will not saying that the deliverable will have certain characteristics, even though it will not saying that the project will be completed under budget, even though it will not Copying from another company’s proposal is another common dishonest tactic. Proposals are protected by copyright law. An employee may not copy from a proposal he or she wrote while working for a different company. There are three reasons to be honest in writing a proposal: to avoid serious legal trouble stemming from breach-of-contract suits to avoid acquiring a bad reputation, thus ruining your business to do the right thing Writing a Proposal Although writing a proposal requires the same writing process that you use for most other kinds of technical documents, a proposal can be so large that two aspects of the writing process — resource planning and collaboration — are even more important than they are for smaller documents. Like planning a writing project, discussed in Chapter 5, planning a proposal requires a lot of work. You need to see whether your organization can devote the needed resources to writing the proposal and then to carrying out the project if the proposal is approved. Sometimes an organization writes a proposal, wins the contract, and then loses money because it lacks the resources to do the project and must subcontract major portions of it. The resources you need fall into three basic categories: Personnel. Will you have the technical personnel, managers, and support people you will need? Facilities. Will you have the facilities, or can you lease them? Can you profitably subcontract tasks to companies that have the necessary facilities? Equipment. Do you have the right equipment? If not, can you buy it or lease it or subcontract the work? Some contracts provide for the purchase of equipment, but others don’t. Don’t write the proposal unless you are confident that you can carry out the project if you get the go-ahead. Collaboration is critical in preparing large proposals because no one person has the time and expertise to do all the work. Writing major proposals requires the expertise of technical personnel, writers, editors, graphic artists, managers, lawyers, and document-production specialists. Often, proposal writers use shared document workspaces and wikis. Usually, a project manager coordinates the process. For more about collaboration, see Ch. 4. Proposal writers almost always reuse existing information, including boilerplate such as descriptions of other projects the company has done, histories and descriptions of the company, and résumés of the primary personnel who will work on the project. This reuse of information is legal and ethical as long as the information is the intellectual property of the company. For more about boilerplate, see Ch. 2, p. 26. The Structure of the Proposal Proposal structures vary greatly from one organization to another. A long, complex proposal might have 10 or more sections, including introduction, problem, objectives, solution, methods and resources, and management. If the authorizing agency provides an IFB, an RFP, an RFQ, or a set of guidelines, follow it closely. If you have no guidelines, or if you are writing an unsolicited proposal, use the structure shown here as a starting point. Then modify it according to your subject, your purpose, and the needs of your audience. An example of a proposal is presented at the end of this chapter, in Figure 16.6 (pp. 439–45). SUMMARY For a proposal of more than a few pages, provide a summary. Many organizations impose a length limit — such as 250 words — and ask the writer to present the summary, single-spaced, on the title page. The summary is crucial, because it might be the only item that readers study in their initial review of the proposal. For more about summaries, see Ch. 18, p. 485. The summary covers the major elements of the proposal but devotes only a few sentences to each. Define the problem in a sentence or two. Next, describe the proposed program and provide a brief statement of your qualifications and experience. Some organizations wish to see the completion date and the final budget figure in the summary; others prefer that this information be presented separately on the title page along with other identifying information about the supplier and the proposed project. INTRODUCTION The purpose of the introduction is to help readers understand the context, scope, and organization of the proposal. GUIDELINES: Introducing a Proposal The introduction to a proposal should answer the following seven questions: What is the problem or opportunity? Describe the problem or opportunity in specific monetary terms, because the proposal itself will include a budget, and you want to convince your readers that spending money on what you propose is smart. Don’t say that a design problem is slowing down production; say that it is costing $4,500 a day in lost productivity. What is the purpose of the proposal? The purpose of the proposal is to describe a solution to a problem or an approach to an opportunity and propose activities that will culminate in a deliverable. Be specific in explaining what you want to do. What is the background of the problem or opportunity? Although you probably will not be telling your readers anything they don’t already know, show them that you understand the problem or opportunity: the circumstances that led to its discovery, the relationships or events that will affect the problem and its solution, and so on. What are your sources of information? Review the relevant literature, ranging from internal reports and memos to published articles or even books, so that readers will understand the context of your work. What is the scope of the proposal? If appropriate, indicate not only what you are proposing to do but also what you are not proposing to do. What is the organization of the proposal? Explain the organizational pattern you will use. What are the key terms that you will use in the proposal? If you will use any specialized or unusual terms, define them in the introduction. PROPOSED PROGRAM In the section on the proposed program, sometimes called the plan of work, explain what you want to do. Be specific. You won’t persuade anyone by saying that you plan to “gather the data and analyze it.” How will you gather and analyze the data? Justify your claims. Every word you say — or don’t say — will give your readers evidence on which to base their decision. If your project concerns a subject written about in the professional literature, show your familiarity with the scholarship by referring to the pertinent studies. However, don’t just string together a bunch of citations. For example, don’t write, “Carruthers (2012), Harding (2013), and Vega (2013) have all researched the relationship between global warming and groundwater contamination.” Rather, use the recent literature to sketch the necessary background and provide the justification for your proposed program. For instance: Carruthers (2012), Harding (2013), and Vega (2013) have demonstrated the relationship between global warming and groundwater contamination. None of these studies, however, included an analysis of the longterm contamination of the aquifer. The current study will consist of …. You might include only a few references to recent research. However, if your topic is complex, you might devote several paragraphs or even several pages to recent scholarship. For more about researching a subject, see Ch. 6. Whether your project calls for primary research, secondary research, or both, the proposal will be unpersuasive if you haven’t already done a substantial amount of research. For instance, say you are writing a proposal to do research on purchasing new industrial-grade lawn mowers for your company. Simply stating that you will visit Wal-Mart, Lowe’s, and Home Depot to see what kinds of lawn mowers they carry would be unpersuasive for two reasons: You need to justify why you are going to visit those three retailers rather than others. Anticipate your readers’ questions: Why did you choose these three retailers? Why didn’t you choose specialized dealers? You should already have determined what stores carry what kinds of lawn mowers and completed any other preliminary research. If you haven’t done the homework, readers have no assurance that you will in fact do it or that it will pay off. If your supervisor authorizes the project and then you learn that none of the lawn mowers in these stores meets your organization’s needs, you will have to go back and submit a different proposal — an embarrassing move. Unless you can show in your proposed program that you have done the research — and that the research indicates that the project is likely to succeed — the reader has no reason to authorize the project. QUALIFICATIONS AND EXPERIENCE After you have described how you would carry out the project, show that you can do it. The more elaborate the proposal, the more substantial the discussion of your qualifications and experience has to be. For a small project, include a few paragraphs describing your technical credentials and those of your co-workers. For larger projects, include the résumés of the project leader, often called the principal investigator, and the other primary participants. External proposals should also discuss the qualifications of the supplier’s organization, describing similar projects the supplier has completed successfully. For example, a company bidding on a contract to build a large suspension bridge should describe other suspension bridges it has built. It should also focus on the equipment and facilities the company already has and on the management structure that will ensure the project will go smoothly. DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY Writing the Proposed Program The following project description is excerpted from a sample grant proposal seeking funding to begin a project to help police officers stay healthy. The questions in the margin ask you to think about how to describe the project in a proposal. 1. The writer has used a lettering system to describe the four main tasks that will be undertaken if the project receives funding. What are the advantages of a lettering system? 2. How effective is the description of Task A? What factors contribute to the description’s effectiveness or lack of effectiveness? 3. The descriptions of the tasks do not include cost estimates. Where would those estimates be presented in the proposal? Why would they be presented there? 4. How effective is the description of Task D? What additional information would improve its effectiveness? DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY To analyze a proposal delivered as a Prezi presentation, go to LaunchPad. Marketing Proposal Presentation BUDGET Good ideas aren’t good unless they’re affordable. The budget section of a proposal specifies how much the proposed program will cost. Budgets vary greatly in scope and format. For simple internal proposals, add the budget request to the statement of the proposed program: “This study will take me two days, at a cost of about $400” or “The variable-speed recorder currently costs $225, with a 10 percent discount on orders of five or more.” For more complicated internal proposals and for all external proposals, include a more explicit and complete budget. Many budgets are divided into two parts: direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include such expenses as salaries and fringe benefits of program personnel, travel costs, and costs of necessary equipment, materials, and supplies. Indirect costs cover expenses that are sometimes called overhead: general secretarial and clerical expenses not devoted exclusively to any one project, as well as operating expenses such as costs of utilities and maintenance. Indirect costs are usually expressed as a percentage — ranging from less than 20 percent to more than 100 percent — of the direct expenses. APPENDIXES Many types of appendixes might accompany a proposal. Most organizations have boilerplate descriptions of the organization and of the projects it has completed. Another item commonly included in an appendix is a supporting letter: a testimonial to the supplier’s skill and integrity, written by a reputable and well-known person in the field. Two other sections commonly found in proposals can be positioned either in the appendix or in the main body of the document: the task schedule and the description of evaluation techniques. TASK SCHEDULE A task schedule is almost always presented in one of three graphical formats: as a table, a bar chart, or a network diagram. Tables The simplest but least informative way to present a schedule is in a table, as shown in Figure 16.3. As with all graphics, provide a textual reference that introduces and, if necessary, explains the table. FIGURE 16.3 Task Schedule Presented as a Table Although displaying information in a table is better than writing it out in sentences, readers still cannot “see” the information. They have to read the table to figure out how long each activity will last, and they cannot tell whether any of the activities are interdependent. They have no way of determining what would happen to the overall project schedule if one of the activities faced delays. Bar Charts Bar charts, also called Gantt charts after the early twentieth-century civil engineer who first used them, are more informative than tables. The basic bar chart shown in Figure 16.4 allows readers to see how long each task will take and whether different tasks will occur simultaneously. Like tables, however, bar charts do not indicate the interdependence of tasks. FIGURE 16.4 Task Schedule Presented as a Bar Chart TECH TIP Network Diagrams Network diagrams show interdependence among various activities, clearly indicating which must be completed before others can begin. However, even a relatively simple network diagram, such as the one shown in Figure 16.5, can be difficult to read. You would probably not use this type of diagram in a document intended for general readers. FIGURE 16.5 Task Schedule Presented as a Network Diagram A network diagram provides more useful information than either a table or a bar chart. DESCRIPTION OF EVALUATION TECHNIQUES Although evaluation can mean different things to different people, an evaluation technique typically refers to any procedure used to determine whether the proposed program is both effective and efficient. Evaluation techniques can range from writing simple progress reports to conducting sophisticated statistical analyses. Some proposals call for evaluation by an outside agent, such as a consultant, a testing laboratory, or a university. Other proposals describe evaluation techniques that the supplier will perform, such as cost-benefit analyses. The issue of evaluation is complicated by the fact that some people think in terms of quantitative evaluations — tests of measurable quantities, such as production increases — whereas others think in terms of qualitative evaluations — tests of whether a proposed program is improving, say, the workmanship on a product. And some people include both qualitative and quantitative testing when they refer to evaluation. An additional complication is that projects can be tested while they are being carried out (formative evaluations) as well as after they have been completed (summative evaluations). When an RFP calls for “evaluation,” experienced proposal writers contact the prospective customer’s representatives to determine precisely what the word means. Sample Internal Proposal The following example of an internal proposal has been formatted as a memo rather than as a formal proposal. (See Chapter 17, Figure 17.4, on pp. 457–64, for the progress report written after this project was under way and Chapter 18, Figure 18.8, on pp. 490–513, for the recommendation report.) FIGURE 16.6 Sample Internal Proposal WRITER’S CHECKLIST The following checklist covers the basic elements of a proposal. Guidelines established by the recipient of the proposal should take precedence over these general suggestions. Did you consider the context of your proposal and make it clear to your readers? (p. 428) Did you describe to your reader what you plan to do? (p. 429) Did you demonstrate your professionalism? (p. 429) Did you write an honest proposal? (p. 430) Does the summary provide an overview of the problem or the opportunity? (p. 432) the proposed program? (p. 432) your qualifications and experience? (p. 432) Does the introduction indicate the problem or opportunity? (p. 432) the purpose of the proposal? (p. 432) the background of the problem or opportunity? (p. 432) your sources of information? (p. 432) the scope of the proposal? (p. 432) the organization of the proposal? (p. 432) the key terms that you will use in the proposal? (p. 432) Does the description of the proposed program provide a clear, specific plan of action and justify the tasks you propose performing? (p. 433) Does the description of qualifications and experience clearly outline your relevant skills and past work? (p. 433) the skills and background of the other participants? (p. 435) your department’s (or organization’s) relevant equipment, facilities, and experience? (p. 435) Is the budget complete? (p. 435) correct? (p. 435) accompanied by an in-text reference? (p. 435) Do the appendixes include the relevant supporting materials? (p. 435) Did you include other relevant sections, such as a task schedule or a description of evaluation techniques? (p. 436) EXERCISES For more about memos, see Ch. 14, p. 376. 1. Study the National Science Foundation’s (NSF) Grant Proposal Guide (http://www.nsf.gov/publications/pub_summ.jsp?ods_key=gpg). In what important ways does the NSF’s guide differ from the advice provided in this chapter? What accounts for these differences? Present your findings in a 500-word memo to your instructor. 2. TEAM EXERCISE Form groups according to major. Using the FedBizOpps website (https://www.fbo.gov), find and study an RFP for a project related to your academic field. What can you learn about the needs of the organization that issued the RFP? How effectively does the RFP describe what the issuing organization expects to see in the proposal? Is it relatively general or specific? What sorts of evaluation techniques does it call for? In your response, include a list of questions that you would ask the issuing organization if you were considering responding to the RFP. Present your results in a memo to your instructor. 3. Write a proposal for a research project that will constitute a major assignment in this course. Your instructor will tell you whether the proposal is to be written individually or collaboratively. Start by defining a technical subject that interests you. (This subject could be one that is relevant to your job or that you have encountered in another course.) Using abstract services and other bibliographic tools, compile a bibliography of articles and books on the subject. (See Chapter 6 for a discussion of finding information.) Create a reasonable real-world context. Here are three common scenarios from the business world: Our company uses Technology X to perform Task A. Should we instead be using Technology Y to perform Task A? For instance, our company uses standard surveying tools in its contracting business. Should we be using 3D-equipped stations instead? Our company has decided to purchase a tool to perform Task A. Which make and model of the tool should we purchase, and from which supplier should we buy it? For instance, our company has decided to purchase 10 multimedia computers. Which brand and model should we buy, and from whom should we buy them? Is leasing the tool a better option than purchasing? Our company does not currently perform Function X. Is it feasible to perform Function X? For instance, we do not currently offer day care for our employees. Should we? What are the advantages and disadvantages of doing so? What forms can day care take? How is it paid for? Following are some additional ideas for topics: the value of using social media to form ties with students in a technical-communication class on another campus the need for expanded opportunities for internships or service-learning in your major the need to create an advisory board of industry professionals to provide expertise about your major the need to raise money to keep the college’s computer labs up to date the need to evaluate the course of study offered by your university in your major to ensure that it is responsive to students’ needs the advisability of starting a campus branch of a professional organization in your field the need to improve parking facilities on campus the need to create or improve organizations for minorities or women on campus CASE 16: Writing an Introduction for a Proposal You work for a company that provides web-development services to external clients. Your job is to seek out requests for proposals (RFPs) posted by organizations looking for companies like yours. You have found an RFP posted by the borough council of a small town, seeking help in updating and enhancing the town’s website. You know that your company is capable of providing these services. Your supervisor agrees and asks you to draft an introduction to the proposal while other team members work on incorporating boilerplate language and handle the scheduling and budgeting details. To get started drafting the introduction, go to LaunchPad. CHAPTER 17 Writing Informational Reports Chapter Introduction Understanding the Process of Writing Informational Reports FOCUS ON PROCESS: Informational Reports Writing Directives DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: High Plains Water-Level Monitoring Study DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: “Global Forest Change” Interactive Map DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Writing a Persuasive Directive Writing Field Reports GUIDELINES: Responding to Readers’ Questions in a Field Report Writing Progress and Status Reports ETHICS NOTE: Reporting Your Progress Honestly ORGANIZING PROGRESS AND STATUS REPORTS CONCLUDING PROGRESS AND STATUS REPORTS GUIDELINES: Projecting an Appropriate Tone in a Progress or Status Report Sample Progress Report Writing Incident Reports Writing Meeting Minutes WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 17: Writing a Directive Understanding the Process of Writing Informational Reports Writing informational reports involves the same writing process used in most other kinds of technical communication. The Focus on Process box on page 450 outlines this process. Much informational report writing involves synthesizing material from other sources. For an explanation of how to incorporate outside sources into your document without plagiarizing, see Appendix, Part A. For details on documenting your sources, see Appendix, Part B. As with any type of writing, you should begin by analyzing your audience. If your informational report is being written for a nontechnical audience, you will want to take care to use terminology that a general audience will understand and to define any important terms they may be unfamiliar with. If your report will be addressed to people from another culture, think about how your readers will react to your choice of application and your writing style. If your readers expect a formal style, you will want to select a formal application (such as a report) rather than a memo. And consider adjusting your writing style, perhaps by adding parenthetical definitions and graphics or by using shorter sentences or more headings, to help readers whose first language is not English. For more about analyzing your audience, see Ch. 5. FOCUS ON PROCESS: Informational Reports In writing informational reports, pay special attention to these steps in the writing process. PLANNING In some cases, determining your audience and to whom to address the report is difficult. Choosing the appropriate format for your report can also be difficult. Consider whether your organization has a preferred format for reports and whether your report will be read by readers from other cultures who might expect a formal style and application. See Chapter 5 for more about analyzing your audience. DRAFTING Some informational reports are drafted on site. For instance, an engineer might use a tablet computer to “draft” a report as she walks around a site. For routine reports, you can sometimes use sections of previous reports or boilerplate. In a status report, for instance, you can copy the description of your current project from the previous report and then update it as necessary. See Chapter 2, page 26, for more about boilerplate. REVISING Even brief or informal reports sent by email should be free of errors. Revise, edit, and proofread the report thoroughly. See the Writer’s Checklist at the end of this chapter. EDITING See Chapter 10 for advice on writing correct and effective sentences. PROOFREADING See Appendix, Part C, for proofreading tips. Writing Directives In a directive, you explain a policy or a procedure you want your readers to follow. Even though you have the authority to require your readers to follow the policy, you want to explain why the policy is desirable or at least necessary. As discussed in Chapter 8, you are most persuasive when you present clear, compelling evidence (in the form of commonsense arguments, numerical data, and examples); when you consider opposing arguments effectively; and when you present yourself as cooperative, moderate, fair-minded, and modest. If appropriate, include arguments that appeal to your readers’ broader goals of security, recognition, personal and professional growth, and connectedness. Figure 17.1 is an example of a directive. FIGURE 17.1 A Directive For more about understanding your audience’s goals, see Ch. 8, p. 173. DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY To analyze a report presented as a website and a report presented through an interactive graphic, go to LaunchPad. DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY Writing a Persuasive Directive This directive was sent to the members of a Montana government department. The questions below ask you to think about the process of writing persuasive directives (as discussed on p. 450). 1. How would you describe the tone used by the writer? Provide an example to support your claim. 2. The writer presents examples of what he calls violations of the state travel policy. Do these examples provide solid evidence that violations of the policy have in fact occurred? 3. How effectively has the writer encouraged his staff to abide by the travel policy? How might he improve the persuasiveness of the directive? Writing Field Reports A common kind of informational report describes inspections, maintenance, and site studies. Such reports, often known as field reports, explain problems, methods, results, and conclusions, but they deemphasize methods and can include recommendations. The report in Figure 17.2 illustrates a possible variation on this standard report structure. FIGURE 17.2 A Field Report GUIDELINES: Responding to Readers’ Questions in a Field Report When you write a field report, be sure to answer the following six questions: What is the purpose of the report? What are the main points covered in the report? What were the problems leading to the decision to perform the procedure? What methods were used? What were the results? What do the results mean? If appropriate, also discuss what you think should be done next. Writing Progress and Status Reports A progress report describes an ongoing project. A status report, sometimes called an activity report, describes the entire range of operations of a department or division. For example, the director of marketing for a manufacturing company might submit a monthly status report. A progress report is an intermediate communication between a proposal (the argument that a project be undertaken) and a completion report (the comprehensive record of a completed project) or a recommendation report (an argument to take further action). Progress reports let you check in with your audience. For more about proposals, see Ch. 16. For more about completion reports and recommendation reports, see Ch. 18. Regardless of how well the project is proceeding, explain clearly and fully what has happened and how those activities or events will affect the overall project. Your tone should be objective, neither defensive nor casual. Unless your own ineptitude or negligence caused a problem, you’re not to blame. Regardless of the news you are delivering — good, bad, or mixed — your job is the same: to provide a clear and complete account of your activities and to forecast the next stage of the project. When things go wrong, you might be tempted to cover up problems and hope that you can solve them before the next progress report. This course of action is unwise and unethical. Chances are that problems will multiply, and you will have a harder time explaining why you didn’t alert your readers earlier. ETHICS NOTE REPORTING YOUR PROGRESS HONESTLY Withholding bad news is unethical because it can mislead readers. As sponsors or supervisors of the project, readers have a right to know how it is going. If you find yourself faced with any of the following three common problems, consider responding in these ways: The deliverable — the document or product you will submit at the end of the project — won’t be what you thought it would be. Without being defensive, describe the events that led to the situation and explain how the deliverable will differ from what you described in the proposal. You won’t meet your schedule. Explain why you are going to be late, and state when the project will be complete. You won’t meet the budget. Explain why you need more money, and state how much more you will need. ORGANIZING PROGRESS AND STATUS REPORTS The time pattern and the task pattern, two organizational patterns frequently used in progress and status reports, are illustrated in Figure 17.3. A status report is usually organized according to task; by its nature, this type of report covers a specified time period. FIGURE 17.3 Organizational Patterns in Reports CONCLUDING PROGRESS AND STATUS REPORTS In the conclusion of a progress or status report, evaluate how the project is proceeding. In the broadest sense, there are two possible messages: things are going well, or things are not going as well as anticipated. If appropriate, use appendixes for supporting materials, such as computations, printouts, schematics, diagrams, tables, or a revised task schedule. Be sure to cross-reference these appendixes in the body of the report, so that readers can find them easily. GUIDELINES: Projecting an Appropriate Tone in a Progress or Status Report Whether the news is positive or negative, these two suggestions will help you sound like a professional. If the news is good, convey your optimism but avoid overstatement. OVERSTATED We are sure the device will do all that we ask of it, and more. REALISTIC We expect that the device will perform well and that, in addition, it might offer some unanticipated advantages. Beware of promising early completion. Such optimistic forecasts rarely prove accurate, and it is embarrassing to have to report a failure to meet an optimistic deadline. Don’t panic if the preliminary results are not as promising as you had planned or if the project is behind schedule. Even the best-prepared proposal writers cannot anticipate all problems. As long as the original proposal was well planned and contained no wildly inaccurate computations, don’t feel responsible. Just do your best to explain unanticipated problems and the status of the project. If your news is bad, at least give the reader as much time as possible to deal with it effectively. Sample Progress Report The progress report in Figure 17.4 (pp. 457–64) was written for the project proposed in Figure 16.6 (pp. 439–45) in Chapter 16. [The recommendation report for this study is in Figure 18.8 (pp. 490–513) in Chapter 18.] FIGURE 17.4 Sample Progress Report Writing Incident Reports An incident report describes an event such as a workplace accident, a health or safety emergency, or an equipment problem. (Specialized kinds of incident reports go by other names, such as accident reports or trouble reports.) The purpose of an incident report is to explain what happened, why it happened, and what the organization did (or is going to do) to follow up on the incident. Incident reports often contain a variety of graphics, including tables, drawings, diagrams, and photographs, as well as videos. Incident reports can range from single-page forms that are filled out on paper or online to reports hundreds of pages long. Figure 17.5 shows an accident form used at a university. FIGURE 17.5 An Accident Report Form Figure 17.6 is the executive summary of a National Transportation Safety Board accident report on a 2012 head-on collision between two freight trains in Oklahoma. Investigators spent many months researching and writing the full report. FIGURE 17.6 Executive Summary of a Complex Accident Report Writing Meeting Minutes Minutes, an organization’s official record of a meeting, are distributed to all those who belong to the committee or group represented at the meeting. Sometimes, minutes are written by administrative assistants; other times they are written by technical professionals or technical communicators. For more about conducting meetings, see Ch. 4, p. 70. In writing minutes, be clear, comprehensive, objective, and diplomatic. Do not interpret what happened; simply report it. Because meetings rarely follow the agenda perfectly, you might find it challenging to provide an accurate record of the meeting. If necessary, interrupt the discussion to request a clarification. Do not record emotional exchanges between participants. Because minutes are the official record of the meeting, you want them to reflect positively on the participants and the organization. For example, in a meeting a person might say, undiplomatically, that another person’s idea is stupid, a comment that might lead to an argument. Don’t record the argument. Instead, describe the outcome: “After a discussion of the merits of the two approaches, the chair asked the Facilities Committee to consider the approaches and report back to membership at the next meeting.” Figure 17.7 (on page 468), an example of an effective set of minutes, was written using a Microsoft template. Many organizations today use templates like this one, which has three advantages: Because it is a word-processing template, the note taker can enter information on his or her computer or tablet during the meeting, reducing the time it takes to publish the minutes. Because the template is a form, it prompts the note taker to fill in the appropriate information, thus reducing the chances that he or she will overlook something important. Because the template is a table, readers quickly become accustomed to reading it and thereby learn where to look for the information they seek. FIGURE 17.7 A Set of Meeting Minutes WRITER’S CHECKLIST Did you choose an appropriate application for the informational report? (p. 449) Does the directive clearly and politely explain your message? (p. 451) explain your reasoning, if appropriate? (p. 451) Does the field report clearly explain the important information? (p. 453) use, if appropriate, a problem-methods-results-conclusion-recommendations organization? (p. 453) Does the progress or status report clearly announce that it is a progress or status report? (p. 455) use an appropriate organization? (p. 455) clearly and honestly report on the subject and forecast the problems and possibilities of the future work? (p. 455) include, if appropriate, an appendix containing supporting materials that substantiate the discussion? (p. 456) Does the incident report explain what happened? (p. 465) explain why it happened? (p. 465) explain what the organization did about it or will do about it? (p. 465) Do the minutes provide the necessary housekeeping details about the meeting? (p. 467) explain the events of the meeting accurately? (p. 467) reflect positively on the participants and the organization? (p. 467) EXERCISES For more about memos, see Ch. 14, p. 376. 1. As the manager of Lewis, Lewis, and Wollensky Law, LLC, you have been informed by some clients that tattoos on the arms and necks of your employees are creating a negative impression. Write a directive in the form of a memo defining a new policy: employees are required to wear clothing that covers any tattoos on their arms and necks. 2. Write a progress report about the research project you are working on in response to Exercise 3 on page 446 in Chapter 16. If the proposal was a collaborative effort, collaborate with the same group members on the progress report. 3. TEAM EXERCISE You are one of three members of the administrative council of your college’s student association. Recently, the three of you have concluded that your weekly meetings, which are open to all students, have become chaotic. There are two main reasons for this: you do not use parliamentary procedure (rules for conducting meetings so that they are efficient and fair), and controversial issues have arisen that have attracted an increasing number of students. You have decided that it is time to consider adopting parliamentary procedures. Look on the web for models of parliamentary procedure. Is there one that you can adopt? Could you combine elements of several models to create an effective process? Find or write a brief set of procedures, being sure to cite your sources. In a memo to your instructor, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the model you propose, and submit it along with the procedures. CASE 17: Writing a Directive You work for a company that is implementing a new waste-reduction initiative, with the goal of saving money and benefiting the environment. Your supervisor has given you an outline of the new policy and asked you to draft a directive that she will distribute to department heads. The directive should explain the purpose and importance of the policy and outline ways department heads and their employees will be expected to participate. To get started drafting the directive, go to LaunchPad. As a landscape engineer/architect for a company, you are asked to examine problems associated with the design of walkways, the location of trees and garden beds, the grading of land around buildings, and any other topographic features. Assume that you have been hired by a specific city park, college campus, apartment complex, community, or company with which you are familiar. Your objective is to evaluate one or more landscaping problems at the site. Write a formal report that includes a study that describes the problem(s) in detail and outlines a plausible solution to the problem(s). Be specific about how the problem(s) affects people - citizens in the community, students, faculty members, employees, inhabitants, and so on. Following are some sample problems that could be evaluated. Poorly landscaped entrance Muddy, unpaved way between dormitories and/or academic buildings on a college campus Unpaved parking lot far from main campus buildings. Soil runoff into the streets from several steep , muddy subdivision lots City tennis courts with poor drainage Lack of adequate flowers or bushes around a new office building Need for landscaped common area(s) within a subdivision or campus Need to save some large trees that may be in danger because of proposed construction

pur-new-sol

Purchase A New Answer

Custom new solution created by our subject matter experts

GET A QUOTE