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Systems of Waste Management from Sustainability: A Comprehensive Foundation by Tom Theis and Jonathan Tomkin, Editors, is available under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4

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Systems of Waste Management from Sustainability: A Comprehensive Foundation by Tom Theis and Jonathan Tomkin, Editors, is available under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. © Dec 26, 2018, Tom Theis and Jonathan Tomkin, Editors. 268 CHAPTER 7. MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT adapt to problems of the future. Laws that are forward-thinking, not overly proscriptive, and administratively exible may well accommodate unforeseen problems and needs. Of course, this does not preclude the passage of new laws or amendments, nor does it imply that all our laws on the environment will adapt in this way to future problems. 7.2 Systems of Waste Management 3 7.2.1 Learning Objectives After reading this module, students should be able to • recognize various environmental regulations governing the management of solid and hazardous wastes, radioactive waste and medical waste • understand the environmental concerns with the growing quantities and improper management of wastes being generated • recognize integrated waste management strategies that consist of prevention, minimization, recycling and reuse, biological treatment, incineration, and landll disposal 7.2.2 Introduction Waste is an inevitable by-product of human life. Virtually every human activity generates some type of material side eect or by-product. When the materials that constitute these by-products are not useful or have been degraded such that they no longer fulll their original or other obvious useful purpose, they are classied as a waste material. Practically speaking, wastes are generated from a wide range of sources and are usually classied by their respective sources. Common generative activities include those associated with residences, commercial businesses and enterprises, institutions, construction and demolition activities, municipal services, and water/wastewater and air treatment plants, and municipal incinerator facilities. Further, wastes are generated from numerous industrial processes, including industrial construction and demolition, fabrication, manufacturing, reneries, chemical synthesis, and nuclear power/nuclear defense sources (often generating low- to high-level radioactive wastes). Population growth and urbanization (with increased industrial, commercial and institutional establishments) contribute to increased waste production, as do the rapid economic growth and industrialization throughout the developing world. These social and economic changes have led to an ever-expanding consumption of raw materials, processed goods, and services. While these trends have, in many ways, improved the quality of life for hundreds of millions of people, it has not come without drastic costs to the environment. Proper management of a range of wastes has become necessary in order to protect public health and the environment as well as ensure sustained economic growth. It is commonly believed that incineration and landll disposal represent preferred options in dealing with waste products; however, many wastes have the potential to be recycled or re-used for some purpose or in some manner. Some waste materials may be reclaimed or re-generated and used again for their original or similar purpose, or they may be physically or chemically changed and employed for alternative uses. As natural resources continue to be depleted, and as incineration and landll disposal options become more costly and unsustainable, numerous economic and social incentives are being promoted by government agencies to prevent or reduce waste generation and develop new methods and technologies for recycling and reusing wastes. Such eorts can have broader implications for energy conservation and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to global climate change, while concurrently fostering sustainable waste management practices. 3 This content is available online at . Available for free at Connexions 269 This section provides an overview of the existing regulatory framework mandating the management of wastes, environmental concerns associated with waste generation and management, and various alternatives for the proper management of wastes. Recent developments towards the development of sustainable waste management systems are also highlighted. It should be mentioned here that although the content of this section reects the regulatory framework and practices within the United States, similar developments and actions have occurred in other developed countries and are increasingly being initiated in numerous developing countries. 7.2.3 Regulatory Framework During the course of the 20th century, especially following World War II, the United States experienced unprecedented economic growth. Much of the growth was fueled by rapid and increasingly complex industrialization. With advances in manufacturing and chemical applications also came increases in the volume, and in many cases the toxicity, of generated wastes. Furthermore, few if any controls or regulations were in place with respect to the handling of toxic materials or the disposal of waste products. Continued industrial activity led to several high-prole examples of detrimental consequences to the environment resulting from these uncontrolled activities. Finally, several forms of intervention, both in the form of government regulation and citizen action, occurred in the early 1970s. Ultimately, several regulations were promulgated on the state and federal levels to ensure the safety of public health and the environment (see Module Government and Laws on the Environment (Section 7.4)). With respect to waste materials, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act4 (RCRA), enacted by the United States Congress, rst in 1976 and then amended in 1984, provides a comprehensive framework for the proper management of hazardous and non-hazardous solid wastes in the United States. RCRA stipulates broad and general legal objectives while mandating the United States Environmental Protection Agency5 (USEPA) to develop specic regulations to implement and enforce the law. The RCRA regulations are contained in Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Parts 239 to 299. States and local governments can either adopt the federal regulations, or they may develop and enforce more stringent regulations than those specied in RCRA. Similar regulations have been developed or are being developed worldwide to manage wastes in a similar manner in other countries. The broad goals of RCRA include: (1) the protection of public health and the environment from the hazards of waste disposal; (2) the conservation of energy and natural resources; (3) the reduction or elimination of waste; and (4) the assurance that wastes are managed in an environmentally-sound manner (e.g. the remediation of waste which may have spilled, leaked, or been improperly disposed). It should be noted here that the RCRA focuses only on active and future facilities and does not address abandoned or historical sites. These types of environmentally impacted sites are managed under a dierent regulatory framework, known as the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act6 (CERCLA), or more commonly known as "Superfund." 7.2.3.1 Solid Waste Regulations RCRA denes solid waste as any garbage or refuse, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, water supply treatment plant, or air pollution control facility and other discarded material, including solid, liquid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous material resulting from industrial, commercial, mining, and agricultural operations, and from community activities. In general, solid waste can be categorized as either non-hazardous waste or hazardous waste. Non-hazardous solid waste can be trash or garbage generated from residential households, oces and other sources. Generally, these materials are classied as municipal solid waste (MSW). Alternatively, non-hazardous materials that result from the production of goods and products by various industries (e.g. coal combustion residues, mining wastes, cement kiln dust), are collectively known as industrial solid waste. 4 http://www.epa.gov/regulations/laws/rcra.html 5 http://www.epa.gov/regulations/laws/rcra.html 6 http://www.epa.gov/superfund/policy/cercla.htm Available for free at Connexions 270 CHAPTER 7. MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT The regulations pertaining to non-hazardous solid waste are contained in 40 CFR Parts 239 to 259 (known as RCRA Subtitle D regulations7 ).These regulations prohibit the open dumping of solid waste, mandates the development of comprehensive plans to manage MSW and non-hazardous industrial waste, and establishes criteria for MSW landlls and other solid waste disposal facilities. Because they are classied as nonhazardous material, many components of MSW and industrial waste have potential for recycling and re-use. Signicant eorts are underway by both government agencies and industry to advance these objectives. Hazardous waste, generated by many industries and businesses (e.g. dry cleaners and auto repair shops), is constituted of materials that are dangerous or potentially harmful to human health and the environment. The regulatory framework with respect to hazardous waste, specically hazardous waste identication, classication, generation, management, and disposal, is described in 40 CFR Parts 260 through 279 (collectively known as RCRA Subtitle C regulations8 ). These regulations control hazardous waste from the time they are generated until their ultimate disposal (a timeline often referred to as "cradle to grave"). According to the RCRA Subtitle C regulations, solid waste is dened as hazardous if it appears in one of the four hazardous waste classications: • F-List (non-specic source wastes as specied in 40 CFR 261.31), which includes wastes from common manufacturing and industrial processes, such as solvents used in cleaning and degreasing operations. • K-list (source-specic waste as specied in 40 CFR 261.32), which includes certain wastes from specic industries such as petroleum or pesticide manufacturing. • P-list and U-list (discarded commercial chemical products as specied in 40 CFR 261.33), which include commercial chemicals products in their unused form. Additionally, a waste is classied as hazardous if it exhibits at least one of these four characteristics: • Ignitability (as dened in 40 CFR 261.21), which refers to creation of res under certain conditions; including materials that are spontaneously combustible or those that have a ash point less than 140 0 F. • Corrosivity (as dened in 40 CFR 261.22), which refers to capability to corrode metal containers; including materials with a pH less than or equal to 2 or greater than or equal to 12.5. • Reactivity (as dened in 40 CFR 261.23), which refers to materials susceptible to unstable conditions such as explosions, toxic fumes, gases, or vapors when heated, compressed, or mixed with water under normal conditions. • Toxicity (as dened in 40 CFR 261.24), which refers to substances that can induce harmful or fatal eects when ingested or absorbed, or inhaled. 7.2.3.2 Radioactive Waste Regulations Although non-hazardous waste (MSW and industrial non-hazardous waste) and hazardous waste are regulated by RCRA, nuclear or radioactive waste is regulated in accordance with the Atomic Energy Act of 19549 by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)10 in the United States. Radioactive wastes are characterized according to four categories: (1) High-level waste (HLW), (2) Transuranic waste (TRU), (3) Low-level waste (LLW), and (4) Mill tailings. Various radioactive wastes decay at dierent rates, but health and environmental dangers due to radiation may persist for hundreds or thousands of years. HLW is typically liquid or solid waste that results from government defense related activities or from nuclear power plants and spent fuel assemblies. These wastes are extremely dangerous due to their heavy concentrations of radionuclides, and humans must not come into contact with them. 7 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_Conservation_and_Recovery_Act#Subtitle_D:_Non-hazardous_Solid_Wastes 8 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_Conservation_and_Recovery_Act#Subtitle_C:_.22Cradle_to_Grave.22_requirements 9 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1954 10 http://www.nrc.gov/ Available for free at Connexions 271 TRU mainly results from the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuels and from the fabrication of nuclear weapons for defense projects. They are characterized by moderately penetrating radiation and a decay time of approximately twenty years until safe radionuclide levels are achieved. Following the passage of a reprocessing ban in 1977, most of this waste generation ended. Even though the ban was lifted in 1981, TRU continues to be rare because reprocessing of nuclear fuel is expensive. Further, because the extracted plutonium may be used to manufacture nuclear weapons, political and social pressures minimize these activities. LLW wastes include much of the remainder of radioactive waste materials. They constitute over 80 percent of the volume of all nuclear wastes, but only about two percent of total radioactivity. Sources of LLW include all of the previously cited sources of HLW and TRU, plus wastes generated by hospitals, industrial plants, universities, and commercial laboratories. LLW is much less dangerous than HLW, and NRC regulations allow some very low-level wastes to be released to the environment. LLW may also be stored or buried until the isotopes decay to levels low enough such that it may be disposed of as nonhazardous waste. LLW disposal is managed at the state level, but requirements for operation and disposal are established by the USEPA and NRC. The Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA)11 is the agency in charge of setting the standards for workers that are exposed to radioactive materials. Mill tailings generally consist of residues from the mining and extraction of uranium from its ore. There are more than 200 million tons of radioactive mill-tailings in the United States, and all of it is stored in sparsely populated areas within the western states, such as Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming. These wastes emit low-level radiation, and much of it is buried to reduce dangerous emissions. 7.2.3.3 Medical Waste Regulations Another type of waste that is of environmental concern is medical waste. Medical waste is regulated by several federal agencies, including the USEPA, OSHA, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)12 of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR)13 of the Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services14 . During 1987-88, medical wastes and raw garbage washed up on beaches along the New Jersey Shore of the United States on several occasions (called, "Syringe Tide15 ") which required closure of beaches. The U.S. Congress subsequently enacted the Medical Waste Tracking Act (MWTA)16 to evaluate management issues and potential risks related to medical waste disposal. The seven types of wastes listed under MWTA include: (1) microbiological wastes (cultures and stocks of infectious wastes and associated biological media that can cause disease in humans); (2) human blood and blood products, including serum, plasma, and other blood components; (3) pathological wastes of human origin, including tissues, organs, and other body masses removed during surgeries or autopsies); (4) contaminated animal wastes (i.e. animal carcasses, body masses, and bedding exposed to infectious agents during medical research, pharmaceutical testing, or production of biological media); (5) isolation wastes (wastes associated with animals or humans known to be infected with highly communicable diseases); (6) contaminated sharps (including hypodermic needles, scalpels, and broken glass); and (7) uncontaminated sharps. In addition, the USEPA considered including any other wastes that had been in contact with infectious agents or blood (e.g. sponges, soiled dressings, drapes, surgical gloves, laboratory coats, slides). LLW nuclear wastes are produced in hospitals by pharmaceutical laboratories and in performing nuclear medicine procedures (e.g. medical imaging to detect cancers and heart disease); however, the danger posed by these wastes is relatively low. A variety of hazardous substances have also been identied in medical wastes, including metals such as lead, cadmium, chromium, and mercury; and toxic organics such as dioxins and furans. All medical wastes represent a small fraction of total waste stream, estimated to constitute a maximum of approximately two percent. Medical wastes are commonly disposed of through incineration: as 11 http://www.osha.gov/ 12 http://www.cdc.gov/ 13 http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ 14 http://www.hhs.gov/ 15 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syringe_Tide 16 http://www.epa.gov/osw/nonhaz/industrial/medical/tracking.htm Available for free at Connexions 272 CHAPTER 7. MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT with most wastes, the resulting volume is greatly reduced, and it assures the destruction and sterilization of infectious pathogens. Disadvantages include the potential of air pollution risks from dioxins and furans as well as the necessary disposal of potentially hazardous ash wastes. New options for disposal of medical wastes (including infectious wastes) are still being explored. Some other technologies include irradiation, microwaving, autoclaving, mechanical alternatives, and chemical disinfection, among others. 7.2.4 Environmental Concerns with Wastes 7.2.4.1 Managing Growing Waste Generation An enormous quantity of wastes are generated and disposed of annually. Alarmingly, this quantity continues to increase on an annual basis. Industries generate and dispose over 7.6 billion tons of industrial solid wastes each year, and it is estimated that over 40 million tons of this waste is hazardous. Nuclear wastes as well as medical wastes are also increasing in quantity every year. Generally speaking, developed nations generate more waste than developing nations due to higher rates of consumption. Not surprisingly, the United States generates more waste per capita than any other country. High waste per capita rates are also very common throughout Europe and developed nations in Asia and Oceania. In the United States, about 243 million tons (243 trillion kg) of MSW is generated per year, which is equal to about 4.3 pounds (1.95 kg) of waste per person per day. Nearly 34 percent of MSW is recovered and recycled or composted, approximately 12 percent is burned a combustion facilities, and the remaining 54 percent is disposed of in landlls. Waste stream percentages also vary widely by region. As an example, San Francisco, California captures and recycles nearly 75 percent of its waste material, whereas Houston, Texas recycles less than three percent. With respect to waste mitigation options, landlling is quickly evolving into a less desirable or feasible option. Landll capacity in the United States has been declining primarily due to (a) older existing landlls that are increasingly reaching their authorized capacity, (b) the promulgation of stricter environmental regulations has made the permitting and siting of new landlls increasingly dicult, (c) public opposition (e.g. "Not In My Backyard" or NIMBYism17 ) delays or, in many cases, prevents the approval of new landlls or expansion of existing facilities. Ironically, much of this public opposition arises from misconceptions about landlling and waste disposal practices that are derived from environmentally detrimental historic activities and practices that are no longer in existence. Regardless of the degree or extent of justication, NIMBYism is a potent opposition phenomenon, whether it is associated with landlls or other land use activities, such as airports, prisons, and wastewater treatment facilities. 7.2.4.2 Eects of Improper Waste Disposal and Unauthorized Releases Prior to the passage of environmental regulations, wastes were disposed improperly without due consideration of potential eects on the public health and the environment. This practice has led to numerous contaminated sites where soils and groundwater have been contaminated and pose risk to the public safety. Of more than 36,000 environmentally impacted candidate sites, there are more than 1,400 sites listed under the Superfund program National Priority List (NPL) which require immediate cleanup resulting from acute, imminent threats to environmental and human health. The USEPA identied about 2,500 additional contaminated sites that eventually require remediation. The United States Department of Defense maintains 19,000 sites, many of which have been extensively contaminated from a variety of uses and disposal practices. Further, approximately 400,000 underground storage tanks have been conrmed or are suspected to be leaking, contaminating underlying soils and groundwater. Over $10 billion (more than $25 billion in current dollars) were specically allocated by CERCLA and subsequent amendments to mitigate impacted sites. However, the USEPA has estimated that the value of environmental remediation exceeds $100 billion. Alarmingly, if past expenditures on NPL sites are extrapolated across remaining and proposed NPL sites, this total may be signicantly higher well into the trillions of dollars. 17 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIMBY Available for free at Connexions 273 It is estimated that more than 4,700 facilities in the United States currently treat, store or dispose of hazardous wastes. Of these, about 3,700 facilities that house approximately 64,000 solid waste management units (SWMUs) may require corrective action. Accidental spillage of hazardous wastes and nuclear materials due to anthropogenic operations or natural disasters has also caused enormous environmental damage as evidenced by the events such as the facility failure in Chernobyl, Ukraine18 (formerly USSR) in 1986, the eects of Hurricane Katrina19 that devastated New Orleans, Louisiana in 2005, and the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami in Fukushima, Japan20 . 7.2.4.3 Adverse Impacts on Public Health A wide variety of chemicals are present within waste materials, many of which pose a signicant environmental concern. Though the leachate generated from the wastes may contain toxic chemicals, the concentrations and variety of toxic chemicals are quite small compared to hazardous waste sites. For example, explosives and radioactive wastes are primarily located at Department of Energy (DOE) sites because many of these facilities have been historically used for weapons research, fabrication, testing, and training. Organic contaminants are largely found at oil reneries, or petroleum storage sites, and inorganic and pesticide contamination usually is the result of a variety of industrial activities as well as agricultural activities. Yet, soil and groundwater contamination are not the only direct adverse eects of improper waste management activities recent studies have also shown that greenhouse gas emissions from the wastes are signicant, exacerbating global climate change. A wide range of toxic chemicals, with an equally wide distribution of respective concentrations, is found in waste streams. These compounds may be present in concentrations that alone may pose a threat to human health or may have a synergistic/cumulative eect due to the presence of other compounds. Exposure to hazardous wastes has been linked to many types of cancer, chronic illnesses, and abnormal reproductive outcomes such as birth defects, low birth weights, and spontaneous abortions. Many studies have been performed on major toxic chemicals found at hazardous waste sites incorporating epidemiological or animal tests to determine their toxic eects. As an example, the eects of radioactive materials are classied as somatic or genetic. The somatic eects may be immediate or occur over a long period of time. Immediate eects from large radiation doses often produce nausea and vomiting, and may be followed by severe blood changes, hemorrhage, infection, and death. Delayed eects include leukemia, and many types of cancer including bone, lung, and breast cancer. Genetic eects have been observed in which gene mutations or chromosome abnormalities result in measurable harmful eects, such as decreases in life expectancy, increased susceptibility to sickness or disease, infertility, or even death during embryonic stages of life. Because of these studies, occupational dosage limits have been recommended by the National Council on Radiation Protection. Similar studies have been completed for a wide range of potentially hazardous materials. These studies have, in turn, been used to determine safe exposure levels for numerous exposure scenarios, including those that consider occupational safety and remediation standards for a variety of land use scenarios, including residential, commercial, and industrial land uses. 7.2.4.4 Adverse Impacts on the Environment The chemicals found in wastes not only pose a threat to human health, but they also have profound eects on entire eco-systems. Contaminants may change the chemistry of waters and destroy aquatic life and underwater eco-systems that are depended upon by more complex species. Contaminants may also enter the food chain through plants or microbiological organisms, and higher, more evolved organisms bioaccumulate the wastes through subsequent ingestion. As the contaminants move farther up the food chain, the continued bioaccumulation results in increased contaminant mass and concentration. In many cases, toxic concentrations are reached, resulting in increased mortality of one or more species. As the populations of these 18 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster 19 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina 20 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Tohoku_earthquake_and_tsunami Available for free at Connexions 274 CHAPTER 7. MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT species decrease, the natural inter-species balance is aected. With decreased numbers of predators or food sources, other species may be drastically aected, leading to a chain reaction that can aect a wide range of ora and fauna within a specic eco-system. As the eco-system continues to deviate from equilibrium, disastrous consequences may occur. Examples include the near extinction of the bald eagle due to persistent ingestion of DDT-impacted sh, and the depletion of oysters, crabs, and sh in Chesapeake Bay due to excessive quantities of fertilizers, toxic chemicals, farm manure wastes, and power plant emissions. 7.2.5 Waste Management Strategies The long-recognized hierarchy of management of wastes, in order of preference consists of prevention, minimization, recycling and reuse, biological treatment, incineration, and landll disposal (see Figure Hierarchy of Waste Management (Figure 7.1)). Figure 7.1: Hierarchy of Waste Management Figure shows the hierarchy of management of wastes in order or preference, starting with prevention as the most favorable to disposal as the least favorable option. Source: Drstuey via Wikimedia Commons 21 7.2.5.1 Waste Prevention The ideal waste management alternative is to prevent waste generation in the rst place. Hence, waste prevention is a basic goal of all the waste management strategies. Numerous technologies can be employed throughout the manufacturing, use, or post-use portions of product life cycles to eliminate waste and, in turn, reduce or prevent pollution. Some representative strategies include environmentally conscious manufacturing methods that incorporate less hazardous or harmful materials, the use of modern leakage detection systems for material storage, innovative chemical neutralization techniques to reduce reactivity, or water saving technologies that reduce the need for fresh water inputs. 21 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Waste_hierarchy.svg Available for free at Connexions 275 7.2.5.2 Waste Minimization In many cases, wastes cannot be outright eliminated from a variety of processes. However, numerous strategies can be implemented to reduce or minimize waste generation. Waste minimization, or source reduction, refers to the collective strategies of design and fabrication of products or services that minimize the amount of generated waste and/or reduce the toxicity of the resultant waste. Often these eorts come about from identied trends or specic products that may be causing problems in the waste stream and the subsequent steps taken to halt these problems. In industry, waste can be reduced by reusing materials, using less hazardous substitute materials, or by modifying components of design and processing. Many benets can be realized by waste minimization or source reduction, including reduced use of natural resources and the reduction of toxicity of wastes. Waste minimization strategies are extremely common in manufacturing applications; the savings of material use preserves resources but also saves signicant manufacturing related costs. Advancements in streamlined packaging reduces material use, increased distribution eciency reduces fuel consumption and resulting air emissions. Further, engineered building materials can often be designed with specic favorable properties that, when accounted for in overall structural design, can greatly reduce the overall mass and weight of material needed for a given structure. This reduces the need for excess material and reduces the waste associated with component fabrication. The dry cleaning industry provides an excellent example of product substitution to reduce toxic waste generation. For decades, dry cleaners used tetrachloroethylene, or "perc" as a dry cleaning solvent. Although eective, tetrachloroethylene is a relatively toxic compound. Additionally, it is easily introduced into the environment, where it is highly recalcitrant due to its physical properties. Further, when its degradation occurs, the intermediate daughter products generated are more toxic to human health and the environment. Because of its toxicity and impact on the environment, the dry cleaning industry has adopted new practices and increasingly utilizes less toxic replacement products, including petroleum-based compounds. Further, new emerging technologies are incorporating carbon dioxide and other relatively harmless compounds. While these substitute products have in many cases been mandated by government regulation, they have also been adopted in response to consumer demands and other market-based forces. 7.2.5.3 Recycling and Reuse Recycling refers to recovery of useful materials such as glass, paper, plastics, wood, and metals from the waste stream so they may be incorporated into the fabrication of new products. With greater incorporation of recycled materials, the required use of raw materials for identical applications is reduced. Recycling reduces the need of natural resource exploitation for raw materials, but it also allows waste materials to be recovered and utilized as valuable resource materials. Recycling of wastes directly conserves natural resources, reduces energy consumption and emissions generated by extraction of virgin materials and their subsequent manufacture into nished products, reduces overall energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to the global climate change, and reduces the incineration or landlling of the materials that have been recycled. Moreover, recycling creates several economic benets, including the potential to create job markets and drive growth. Common recycled materials include paper, plastics, glass, aluminum, steel, and wood. Additionally, many construction materials can be reused, including concrete, asphalt materials, masonry, and reinforcing steel. "Green" plant-based wastes are often recovered and immediately reused for mulch or fertilizer applications. Many industries also recover various by-products and/or rene and "re-generate" solvents for reuse. Examples include copper and nickel recovery from metal nishing processes; the recovery of oils, fats, and plasticizers by solvent extraction from lter media such as activated carbon and clays; and acid recovery by spray roasting, ion exchange, or crystallization. Further, a range of used food-based oils are being recovered and utilized in "biodiesel" applications. Numerous examples of successful recycling and reuse eorts are encountered every day. In some cases, the recycled materials are used as input materials and are heavily processed into end products. Common examples include the use of scrap paper for new paper manufacturing, or the processing of old aluminum Available for free at Connexions 276 CHAPTER 7. MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT cans into new aluminum products. In other cases, reclaimed materials undergo little or no processing prior to their re-use. Some common examples include the use of tree waste as wood chips, or the use of brick and other xtures into new structural construction. In any case, the success of recycling depends on eective collection and processing of recyclables, markets for reuse (e.g. manufacturing and/or applications that utilize recycled materials), and public acceptance and promotion of recycled products and applications utilizing recycled materials. 7.2.5.4 Biological Treatment Landll disposal of wastes containing signicant organic fractions is increasingly discouraged in many countries, including the United States. Such disposal practices are even prohibited in several European countries. Since landlling does not provide an attractive management option, other techniques have been identied. One option is to treat waste so that biodegradable materials are degraded and the remaining inorganic waste fraction (known as residuals) can be subsequently disposed or used for a benecial purpose. Biodegradation of wastes can be accomplished by using aerobic composting, anaerobicdigestion, or mechanical biological treatment (MBT) methods. If the organic fraction can be separated from inorganic material, aerobic composting or anaerobic digestion can be used to degrade the waste and convert it into usable compost. For example, organic wastes such as food waste, yard waste, and animal manure that consist of naturally degrading bacteria can be converted under controlled conditions into compost, which can then be utilized as natural fertilizer. Aerobic composting is accomplished by placing selected proportions of organic waste into piles, rows or vessels, either in open conditions or within closed buildings tted with gas collection and treatment systems. During the process, bulking agents such as wood chips are added to the waste material to enhance the aerobic degradation of organic materials. Finally, the material is allowed to stabilize and mature during a curing process where pathogens are concurrently destroyed. The end-products of the composting process include carbon dioxide, water, and the usable compost material. Compost material may be used in a variety of applications. In addition to its use as a soil amendment for plant cultivation, compost can be used remediate soils, groundwater, and stormwater. Composting can be labor-intensive, and the quality of the compost is heavily dependent on proper control of the composting process. Inadequate control of the operating conditions can result in compost that is unsuitable for benecial applications. Nevertheless, composting is becoming increasingly popular; composting diverted 82 million tons of waste material away the landll waste stream in 2009, increased from 15 million tons in 1980. This diversion also prevented the release of approximately 178 million metric tons of carbon dioxide in 2009 an amount equivalent to the yearly carbon dioxide emissions of 33 million automobiles. In some cases, aerobic processes are not feasible. As an alternative, anaerobic processes may be utilized. Anaerobic digestion consists of degrading mixed or sorted organic wastes in vessels under anaerobic conditions. The anaerobic degradation process produces a combination of methane and carbon dioxide (biogas) and residuals (biosolids). Biogas can be used for heating and electricity production, while residuals can be used as fertilizers and soil amendments. Anaerobic digestion is a preferred degradation for wet wastes as compared to the preference of composting for dry wastes. The advantage of anaerobic digestion is biogas collection; this collection and subsequent benecial utilization makes it a preferred alternative to landll disposal of wastes. Also, waste is degraded faster through anaerobic digestion as compared to landll disposal. Another waste treatment alternative, mechanical biological treatment (MBT), is not common in the United States. However, this alternative is widely used in Europe. During implementation of this method, waste material is subjected to a combination of mechanical and biological operations that reduce volume through the degradation of organic fractions in the waste. Mechanical operations such as sorting, shredding, and crushing prepare the waste for subsequent biological treatment, consisting of either aerobic composting or anaerobic digestion. Following the biological processes, the reduced waste mass may be subjected to incineration. Available for free at Connexions 277 7.2.5.5 Incineration Waste degradation not only produces useful solid end-products (such as compost), degradation by-products can also be used as a benecial energy source. As discussed above, anaerobic digestion of waste can generate biogas, which can be captured and incorporated into electricity generation. Alternatively, waste can be directly incinerated to produce energy. Incineration consists of waste combustion at very high temperatures to produce electrical energy. The byproduct of incineration is ash, which requires proper characterization prior to disposal, or in some cases, benecial re-use. While public perception of incineration can be negative, this is often based reactions to older, less ecient technologies. New incinerators are cleaner, more exible and ecient, and are an excellent means to convert waste to energy while reducing the volume of waste. Incineration can also oset fossil fuel use and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Bogner et al., 2007 (p. 278)). It is widely used in developed countries due to landll space limitations. It is estimated that about 130 million tons of waste are annually combusted in more than 600 plants in 35 countries. Further, incineration is often used to eectively mitigate hazardous wastes such as chlorinated hydrocarbons, oils, solvents, medical wastes, and pesticides. Despite all these advantages, incineration is often viewed negatively because of the resulting air emissions, the creation of daughter chemical compounds, and production of ash, which is commonly toxic. Currently, many 'next generation" systems are being researched and developed, and the USEPA is developing new regulations to carefully monitor incinerator air emissions under the Clean Air Act22 . 7.2.5.6 Landll Disposal Despite advances in reuse and recycling, landll disposal remains the primary waste disposal method in the United States. As previously mentioned, the rate of MSW generation continues to increase, but overall landll capacity is decreasing. New regulations concerning proper waste disposal and the use of innovative liner systems to minimize the potential of groundwater contamination from leachate inltration and migration have resulted in a substantial increase in the costs of landll disposal. Also, public opposition to landlls continues to grow, partially inspired by memories of historic uncontrolled dumping practices the resulting undesirable side eects of uncontrolled vectors, contaminated groundwater, unmitigated odors, and subsequent diminished property values. Landlls can be designed and permitted to accept hazardous wastes in accordance with RCRA Subtitle C regulations, or they may be designed and permitted to accept municipal solid waste in accordance with RCRA Subtitle D regulations. Regardless of their waste designation, landlls are engineered structures consisting of bottom and side liner systems, leachate collection and removal systems, nal cover systems, gas collection and removal systems, and groundwater monitoring systems (Sharma and Reddy, 2004 (p. 278)). An extensive permitting process is required for siting, designing and operating landlls. Post-closure monitoring of landlls is also typically required for at least 30 years. Because of their design, wastes within landlls are degraded anaerobically. During degradation, biogas is produced and collected. The collection systems prevent uncontrolled subsurface gas migration and reduce the potential for an explosive condition. The captured gas is often used in cogeneration facilities for heating or electricity generation. Further, upon closure, many landlls undergo "land recycling" and redeveloped as golf courses, recreational parks, and other benecial uses. Wastes commonly exist in a dry condition within landlls, and as a result, the rate of waste degradation is commonly very slow. These slow degradation rates are coupled with slow rates of degradation-induced settlement, which can in turn complicate or reduce the potential for benecial land re-use at the surface. Recently, the concept of bioreactor landlls has emerged, which involves recirculation of leachate and/or injection of selected liquids to increase the moisture in the waste, which in turn induces rapid degradation. The increased rates of degradation increase the rate of biogas production, which increases the potential of benecial energy production from biogas capture and utilization. 22 http://www.epa.gov/air/caa/ Available for free at Connexions 278 CHAPTER 7. MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 7.2.6 Summary Many wastes, such as high-level radioactive wastes, will remain dangerous for thousands of years, and even MSW can produce dangerous leachate that could devastate an entire eco-system if allowed inltrate into and migrate within groundwater. In order to protect human health and the environment, environmental professionals must deal with problems associated with increased generation of waste materials. The solution must focus on both reducing the sources of wastes as well as the safe disposal of wastes. It is, therefore, extremely important to know the sources, classications, chemical compositions, and physical characteristics of wastes, and to understand the strategies for managing them. Waste management practices vary not only from country to country, but they also vary based on the type and composition of waste. Regardless of the geographical setting of the type of waste that needs to be managed, the governing principle in the development of any waste management plan is resource conservation. Natural resource and energy conservation is achieved by managing materials more eciently. Reduction, reuse, and recycling are primary strategies for eective reduction of waste quantities. Further, proper waste management decisions have increasing importance, as the consequences of these decisions have broader implications with respect to greenhouse gas emissions and global climate change. As a result, several public and private partnership programs are under development with the goal of waste reduction through the adoption of new and innovative waste management technologies. Because waste is an inevitable by-product of civilization, the successful implementation of these initiatives will have a direct eect on the enhanced quality of life for societies worldwide. 7.2.7 Review Questions Question 7.2.1 How is hazardous waste dened according to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)? In your opinion, is this denition appropriate? Explain. Question 7.2.2 Explain specic characteristics of radioactive and medical wastes that make their management more problematic than MSW. Question 7.2.3 Compare and contrast environmental concerns with wastes in a rural versus urban setting. Question 7.2.4 What are the pros and cons of various waste management strategies? Do you agree or disagree with the general waste management hierarchy? Question 7.2.5 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of biological treatment and incineration of wastes. 7.2.8 References Bogner, J., Ahmed, M.A., Diaz, C. Faaij, A., Gao, Q., Hashimoto,S., et al. (2007). Waste Management, In B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (Eds.), Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on (pp. 585-618). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Retrieved August 19, 2010 from http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg3/ar4-wg3chapter10.pdf23 Sharma, H.D. & Reddy, K.R. (2004). Geoenvironmental Engineering: Site Remediation, Waste Containment, and Emerging Waste Management Technologies. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley. Climate Change 23 http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg3/ar4-wg3-chapter10.pdf Available for free at Connexions 1 Integrated Solid Waste Management Mushtaq Ahemd MEMON International Environmental Technology Centre (IETC) OSAKA - JAPAN UNEP/DTIE/IETC UNEP UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMME DTIE DIVISION OF TECHNOLOGY, INDUSTRY AND ECONOMICS IETC INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY CENTER provides leadership and encourages partnership in caring for the environment. encourages decision makers to develop and implement policies, strategies and practices that are cleaner, safer and efficient. promotes and implements Environmentally Sound Technologies (ESTs) • • • Disaster Prevention Waste Management Water and Sanitation 3 IETC Activities on Waste • UNEP GC decision 26/L2 on Chemicals and Waste Management • UNEP GC decision 25/8 on Waste • UNEP Programme of Work • Basel 9th COP on Waste Management: Bali Strategic Plan for Technology Support and Capacity-building • Millennium Development Goals • CSD 18 and 19 on Waste • Support to MEAs Field Projects: •Integrated Solid Waste Management •E-waste •Waste Plastics •Waste Agricultural Biomass Global Partnership on Waste Management Normative function: Information Platform on Waste Management •Guidelines and training •Waste and climate change •Compendium of technologies GDP & Waste Generation 5 Waste Generation Challenges and Opportunities • • • • • Cities with increase in economic activities - enormous levels of waste including hazardous and toxic wastes Changing lifestyles - composition of waste is also changing A growing realization of the negative impacts that wastes on environment, land, human health, climate and so on Complexity, costs and coordination of waste management has necessitated multi-stakeholder involvement in every stage of the waste stream. This calls for an integrated approach to waste management. Local Governments are now looking at waste as a business opportunity, (a) to extract valuable resources contained within it that can still be used and (b) to safely process and dispose wastes with a minimum impact on the environment Defining ISWM Integrated solid waste management refers to the strategic approach to sustainable management of solid wastes covering all sources and all aspects, covering generation, segregation, transfer, sorting, treatment, recovery and disposal in an integrated manner, with an emphasis on maximizing resource use efficiency. 8 Integrated Solid Waste Management Life-cycle Perspective Natural Resources Reduction Recycled Resources Reduction Direct Consumption Material Recycling Production Sustainable consumption Directly Recycled Resources Treatment Consumption (products & services) Discarding (Products / waste) Proper treatment and recovery Final disposal Proper disposal Reuse 9 Integrated Solid Waste Management Generation-Source Perspective Hazardous Waste for Treatment & Disposal 3R Residential 3R Industrial & Commercial 3R Services (Healthcare, Laboratory, etc.) Methane & heat Energy Treatment Recovery Final waste Collection of Waste Segregation of Waste Recycling waste (organic & inorganic) Waste Exchange Discarded waste Sanitary Landfill, Incineration Final disposal Resources Plastics, wood, steel, paper, glass, and compost/biogas Integrated Solid Waste Management Stakeholders/Management Perspective Waste disposal regulations 3R Waste Generators (Residents, industries & services) Waste generation Technological innovations & development Effective regulations & financial mechanisms for generators, service providers & businesses Government (Local and national government departments) Collection, transportation & segregation Businesses (To generate compost, energy, and recycling materials/products) SWM service providers (Collection, segregation, transportation of recycling and non-recycling waste, treatment (sanitary landfill & incineration) and disposal Treatment & final disposal Recycling, composting and energy 1 0 Benefits of ISWM Cleaner and safe neighborhoods Higher resource use efficiency Resource augmentation Savings in waste management costs due to reduced levels of final waste for disposal Better business opportunities and economic growth Local ownership & responsibilities / participation Turning vicious circle into virtuous circle 1 2 ISWM Coverage Geographical and administrative boundaries Jurisdiction (municipal, industrial) limits Institutions involved and administrative mandate Sectors and sub-sectors: (residential , commercial, industrial, urban agriculture, healthcare, construction debris, and sludge) Waste streams (hazardous and non-hazardous) Recyclable and non-recyclable waste Benefits of ISWM Cleaner and safe neighborhoods Higher resource use efficiency Resource augmentation Savings in waste management costs due to reduced levels of final waste for disposal Better business opportunities and economic growth Local ownership & responsibilities / participation Turning vicious circle into virtuous circle 1 4 ISWM Plan • An ISWM Plan per se is a package consisting of a Management System including: Policies (regulatory, fiscal, etc.), Technologies (basic equipment and operational aspects) Voluntary measures (awareness raising, self regulations) • A Management System covers all aspects of waste management; from waste generation through collection, transfer, transportation, sorting, treatment and disposal. • Data and information on waste characterization and quantification (including future trends), and assessment of current solid waste management system for operational stages provide the basis for developing a concrete and locality-specific management system. Process to Develop ISWM Plan Development of Sub-management Systems 1. Generation Level 2. Collection & Transportation 3. Sorting, Treatment and Recovery 4. Final Disposal 1 7 Outline of ISWM Plan Source wise quantity & quality Generation Current Level To Future Projection Targets & Issues of Concerns Pre-generation (SCP: CP,WM, DfE) Post-generation (Reuse/Recycle at Source) Segregation at Source for Primary Disposal Current Systems and Gaps therein Collection (Storage Transfer & Transportation) Primary Collection – From Generation Source Secondary Collection – From Transfer Station Targets & Issues of Concerns Segregated or Mixed For Storage/Collection Level of Sorting at Transfer Stations Current Systems and Gaps therein Constraints Technical, Economic, Social, Policy Constraints Technical, Economic, Social, Policy Sorting, Treatment Transfer Stations and Treatment Plants (Biological, Thermal, Chemical) Recovery (Materials & Energy) Targets & Issues of Concerns Sorting for Material Recovery Treatment for Energy Recovery and Disposal Constraints Technical, Economic, Social, Policy Final Disposal Current Systems and Gaps therein Targets & Issues of Concerns Recovery of landfill gas Collection and treatment of leachate Reclamation of land Constraints Technical, Economic, Social, Policy Management System Management System Technological Policy (regulatory, fiscal) Voluntary Management System Technological Policy (regulatory, fiscal) Voluntary Management System Technological Policy (regulatory, fiscal) Voluntary Management System Technological Policy (regulatory, fiscal) Voluntary Implementation Strategy Monitoring & Feedback 1 8 Activities on ISWM 1. Role of IETC • Implementation of ISWM projects with local partners • Local capacity building - training & field activities • Normative function – Training, Compendia, Lessons 2. IETC Projects on ISWM – – – – – – – – – – ISWM Plan for Wuxi New District, PRC ISWM Plan for Pune City, India ISWM Plan for Maseru City, Lesotho ISWM Plan for Matale, Sri Lanka ISWM Plan for Novo Hamburgo, Brazil ISWM Plan for Nairobi, Kenya ISWM Plan for Bahir Dar, Ethiopia ISWM Plan for Pathum Thani, Thailand (on-going) ISWM Plan in Indonesia (starting soon) ISWM Plan for Addis Ababa (under consideration) 1 9 UNEP Strategy for ISWM 1. Within UNEP ISWM activities to support Bali Strategic Plan on Capacity Building and Technology Support & to assist in UNEP Waste Strategy & Action Plan 2. Beyond UNEP ISWM as one of the sub-focal areas under the Global Partnership on Waste Management Partnership (GPWM) to: develop partnerships with multilateral & bilateral donors to support implementation of ISWM Plans develop partnerships with other organizations working for Waste Management – complimenting & multiplier effect for wider coverage of International Cooperation Lessons • Top level political commitment as well as interest and commitment of local authorities is crucial to the success of project • Baseline data is usually not available and requires considerable time and resources • Local project teams are very essential • It is very difficult to get cost related date in current waste management systems Lessons … contd. • Stakeholder consultation provides vital information and greatly improve local ownership • ISWM approach being new requires continuous capacity building in partner institutions • Benefits of proper waste management should be looked not just from environmental perspective but economic and social benefits should also be factored in • Continuous follow-up is required to support implementation 2 2 International Environmental Technology Centre Osaka 2-110 Ryokuchi Koen, Tsurumi-ku, Osaka 538-0036, Japan Tel : +81 (0) 6 6915 4581 Fax : +81 (0) 6 6915 0304 E-mail : unep.tie@unep.org Web: http://www.unep.or.jp Thank You… On 1 January 2016, the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development — adopted by world leaders in September 2015 at an historic UN Summit — officially came into force. These goals address every topic of concern we have discussed this semester. Over the coming decade, it's the hope of UN member nations (which includes the U.S.) that the SDGs will universally be applied to all, countries will mobilize efforts to end all forms of poverty, fight inequalities and tackle climate change, while ensuring that no one is left behind. With the SDGs as your reference, answer these questions: 1. Are any of the 17goals from the UN website particularly unrealistic—describe, in detail, why you think so (or not). 2. Which of the 17 goals do you believe is the highest priority for the world and why? Cite specific examples from class content, discussions and assessments. 23 Solid and Hazardous Waste Overview of Chapter 23 ? ? Solid Waste Waste Prevention ? Reducing the Amount of Waste ? Reusing Products ? Recycling Materials ? Hazardous Waste ? Types of Hazardous Waste ? Management of Hazardous Waste © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Solid Waste ? US generates more solid waste per capita than any other country ? 1.98kg (4.34lb) per person per day ? 243 million tons in 2009 (down from 2007) ? Waste generation is highest in developed countries ? Instead of repairing items, they are replaced © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Types of Solid Waste ? Municipal solid waste ? Solid material discarded by homes, office buildings, retail stores, schools, etc. ? Relatively small portion of solid waste produced ? Non-municipal solid waste ? Solid waste generated by industry, agriculture, and mining © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Composition of Municipal Solid Waste © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Disposal of Solid Waste ? Three methods ? Sanitary Landfills ? Incineration ? Recycling © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Sanitary Landfill ? ? ? Compacting and burying waste under a shallow layer of soil Most common method of disposal Problems ? Methane gas production by microorganisms ? Contamination of surface water & ground water by leachate ? Not a long-term remedy ? Few new facilities being opened ? Closing a full landfill is very expensive © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Sanitary Landfill © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Sanitary Landfill ? Special Problem: Plastic ? Much of plastic is from packaging ? Chemically stable and do not readily break down and decompose ? Special Problem: Tires ? Made from materials that cannot be recycled ? Can be incinerated or shredded © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Incineration ? ? Volume of solid waste reduced by 90% Produces heat that can make steam to generate electricity ? Produce less carbon emissions than fossil fuel power plants ? Byproduct ? Bottom ? Fly ash ash © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Incineration - Types of Incinerators ? Mass burn (below), Modular, Refuse-derived © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Incineration - Problems ? Production of hazardous air pollutants ? Carbon monoxide, particulates, heavy metals ? Reduced by ? Lime Scrubbers ? Electrostatic Precipitators ? Byproduct - Bottom ash and Fly ash ? Must be disposed of in hazardous waste landfills © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Composting ? ? ? ? Municipal Solid Waste Composting Includes: Food scraps, Sewage sludge, Agricultural manure, Yard waste Reduces yard waste in landfills Can be sold or distributed to community © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Waste Prevention ? Three Goals 1. 2. 3. Reduce the amount of waste Reuse products Recycle materials © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Reducing Waste ? Purchase products with less packaging © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Reducing Waste ? Source reduction ? Products designed and manufactured to decrease the volume of solid waste ? Reuse and recycle wastes at the plant where they are generated ? ? Pollution Prevention Act (1990) Dematerialization ? Progressive decrease in the size and weight of a product as a result of technological improvements © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Reusing Products ? Refilling glass beverage bottles used to be standard ? Heavier glass required in reusable glass bottlescosts more to make and transport ? Cheaper to use lightweight, non-reusable glass ? Japan recycles almost all bottles ? Reused ? 20 times 11 US States have deposits on cans and bottles to promote reuse © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Recycling Materials ? Every ton of recycled paper saves: ? 17 trees ? 7000 gallons of water ? 4100 kwatt-hrs of energy ? 3 cubic yards of landfill space ? Recycle ? Glass bottles, newspapers, steel cans, plastic bottles, cardboard, office paper © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Recycling ? ? US recycles 38% of Municipal Solid Waste Recycling Paper ? US recycles 62.1% ? This has increased due to consumer demand for recycled paper products ? Recycling Glass ? US recycles 25% ? Costs producers less than new glass (right) © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Recycling ? Recycling Aluminum ? Making new can from recycled one costs far less than making a brand new one (economic incentive) ? 51% of aluminum was recycled in 2009 ? Recycling Metals other than Aluminum ? Lead, gold, iron, steel, silver and zinc ? Metallic composition is often unknown ? Makes recycling difficult © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Recycling ? Recycling Plastic ? 14% of all plastic is recycled (2009) ? Less expensive to make from raw materials ? 28% of PET in water and soda bottles is recycled ? Most plastic containers are made of many types of plastic that must be separated to be recycled © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Recycling ? Recycling Tires ? Few products are made from old tires ? Playground equipment ? Trashcans ? Garden hose ? Carpet ? Roofing materials © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Integrated Waste Management © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Hazardous Waste ? Any discarded chemical that threatens human health or the environment ? Reactive, corrosive, explosive or toxic chemicals ? 1% of waste stream in US Love Canal Toxic Waste Site © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Hazardous Waste © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Hazardous Waste ? Dioxin ? Formed as byproduct of combustion of chlorine compounds ? Bioaccumulate and biomagnify through foodweb ? Cause cancer, effect reproductive, immune and nervous system ? PCBs ? Used as cooling fluid, fire retardant, lubricator ? Disposed of in open dumps, sewers and fields in 1970s - issue in groundwater today ? Endocrine disrupter © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Case-In-Point Hanford Nuclear Reservation © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Management of Hazardous Waste ? Chemical accidents ? National Response Center notified ? Typically involves oil, gasoline or other petroleum spill ? Current Management Policies ? Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976, 1984) ? Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (1980) ? Commonly known as Superfund © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Superfund Program ? Cleaning up existing hazardous waste: ? 400,000 waste sites ? Leaking chemical storage tanks and drums (below) ? Pesticides dumps ? Piles of mining wastes ? Must be cleaned up ? 2011 - over 11,000 sites on list © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Management of Hazardous Waste ? Superfund National Priorities List ? 2011: 1,290 sites on the list ? States ? New with the greatest number of sites Jersey (112) ? Pennsylvania ? California ? New (95) (94) York (87) ? Michigan (67) © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Management of Hazardous Waste ? Biological Treatment of Hazardous Chemicals ? Bioremediation - use of bacteria and other microorganisms to break down hazardous waste into relatively harmless products ? 1000 species of bacteria and fungi ? Time consuming ? Inexpensive ? Phytoremediation- use of plants to absorb and accumulate hazardous materials in the soil ? Ex: Indian mustard removes heavy metals © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Examples of Phytoremediation © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Management of Hazardous Waste 1. 2. 3. Source reduction Conversion to less hazardous materials Long-term storage © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Hazardous Waste Landfill © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 24 Tomorrow’s World Overview of Chapter 24 ? ? ? ? Living Sustainably Sustainable Living: A Plan of Action Changing Personal Attitude and Practices What Kind of World Do We Want? © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Living Sustainably ? Environmental Sustainability ? Ability to meet humanity’s current needs without compromising the needs to future generations © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Living Sustainably ? Consumption ? ? Human use of materials and energy World does not have enough resources to sustain everyone at level enjoyed by US ? Countries like China are rapidly catching up (right) © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Five Recommendations For Sustainable Living ? ? ? ? ? 1. Eliminating poverty and stabilizing the human population 2. Protecting and restoring Earth’s resources 3. Providing adequate food for all people 4. Mitigating climate change 5. Designing sustainable cities From Plan B 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble, Published in 2006 by Lester R. Brown © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Recommendation 1 - Eliminating Poverty and Stabilizing Human Population ? Eliminating Poverty ? Improving quality of life in lower-income countries will require increasing economic growth ? Must address issues of: health, nutrition and education ? Role of women requires attention (right) © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Recommendation 1 - Eliminating Poverty and Stabilizing Human Population ? Eliminating Poverty ? Need more trained professionals in developing countries ? Debts to poorest countries should be forgiven ? Population ? Must devote necessary resources to family planning © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Recommendation 2 - Protecting and Restoring Earth’s Resources ? The world’s forests ? Lost for two reasons ? Converted to cash ? Pressure from rapid population growth and widespread poverty ? Need to protect forests © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Recommendation 2 - Protecting and Restoring Earth’s Resources ? Loss of biodiversity ? Need ? to protect biodiversity ? Food, medicine, clothing ? Ecosystem services © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Recommendation 2 - Protecting and Restoring Earth’s Resources ? Protecting and Restoring Earth’s Resources ? Economic development cannot ignore functions of biological and physical systems ? Depends on attitudes and practices based on scientific information © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Recommendation 3 - Providing Adequate Food For All People ? ? Link between poverty and food insecurity Agriculture must be improved to achieve more global sustainability Manage farmlands and grazing lands efficiently (precision farming and IPM) ? Reduce loss of soil fertility, erosion, aquifer depletion, etc ? © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Recommendation 4 - Mitigating Climate Change ? ? Human activities are causing the increase in global temperature Must address climate change in aggressive coordinated fashion ? Cannot wait until scientific knowledge is complete- earth is too complex ? Stabilizing climate requires a comprehensive energy plan ? Phase out of fossil fuels in both developed AND developing countries © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Recommendation 4 - Mitigating Climate Change © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Recommendation 5 - Designing Sustainable Cities ? ? Almost 50% of world’s population now lives in cities Need to design sustainable cities ? Urban transportation systems ? Parks and open spaces ? Innovative approaches to handle water scarcity and sewage treatment © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Case-In-Point Jakarta, Indonesia ? Megacity in a developing country ? Badly polluted air ? 95% of human waste dumped into rivers ? 2009 Green Hope ? Education program © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Changing Personal Attitudes and Practices ? Consumption overpopulation ? Situation where each individual in a population consumes too large a share of resources ? Sustainable consumption ? Use of goods and services that satisfy basic human needs and improve the quality of life but that minimize the use of resources so they are available for future use © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Changing Personal Attitudes and Practices ? Role of Education ? Accurate information must be made widely available ? People’s concerns for the environment do not translate into action © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Role of Education ? People must be educated to understand the reasons for changing practices 1. 2. 3. 4. Set up environmental curricula at all school levels Encourage environmental organizations Support institutions that promote conservation and sustainability Encourage inclusion of relevant material in programs of social groups © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. What Kind of World Do We Want? ? Those who live in developed countries are the source of most of the problems facing the global environment ? Assumption made that environment will take care of itself ? This view needs to be changed radically © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. What Kind of World Do We Want? ? ? Most critical environmental problem is our own attitudes and values Your generation must be the next pioneers ? Explore a different way for humans to exist in the world ? Requires reconnecting with natural environment ? Requires revaluing ourselves according to a new set of ideals ? What kind of world do you want to live in? © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.