Homework answers / question archive / ANSWER ONE ONLY 1) What are the historical-cultural roots of our current environmental crisis? Do you agree with White's assessment that it is our Judeo-Christian dominance model that has led to our environmental crisis? Why or why not? Read Genesis 1-3 very closely and compare White’s reading with that of Dobel

ANSWER ONE ONLY 1) What are the historical-cultural roots of our current environmental crisis? Do you agree with White's assessment that it is our Judeo-Christian dominance model that has led to our environmental crisis? Why or why not? Read Genesis 1-3 very closely and compare White’s reading with that of Dobel

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ANSWER ONE ONLY

1) What are the historical-cultural roots of our current environmental crisis? Do you agree with White's assessment that it is our Judeo-Christian dominance model that has led to our environmental crisis? Why or why not? Read Genesis 1-3 very closely and compare White’s reading with that of Dobel. Which account do you think is closer to the truth? Explain your answer. Finally, if one does not accept a theistic version of creation, does either St. Francis’s “alternative Christian” view of “universal brotherhood” or the stewardship (or gardener) model make any sense?

22 CHAPTER l • Perspectives 3 The Cultural Basis of Our Environmental Crisis LEWIS W. MONCRIEF Lewis W. Moncrief is a sociologist who taught for many years in the Department of Park and Recreation Resources at Michigan State University. In this reply to Lynn White's article, Moncrief argues that White's analysis misses the essential point that human beings have been altering the environment from their beginning. He asks, "If our environmental crisis is a 'religious problem,' why are other parts of the world experiencing the same environmental problems that we are so well acquainted with in the Western world?" A more plausible account of the causes of our crisis is complex and has to do with the nature of capital ism, technology, democratization, urbanization, and individualism. One hundred years ago at almost any location in the United States, potable water was no farther away than the closest brook or stream. Today there are hardly any streams in the United States, except in a few high mountainous reaches, that can safely satisfY human thirst without chemical treatment. An oft-mentioned satisfaction in the lives of urbanites in an earlier era was a leisurely stroll in late afternoon to get a breath of fresh air in a neighborhood park or along a quiet street. Today in many of our major metropolitan areas it is difficult to find a quiet, peaceful place to take a leisurely stroll and sometimes impossible to get a breath of fresh air. These contrasts point up the dramatic changes that have occurred in the quality of our envirmunent. It is not my intent in this article, however, to document the existence of an environmental crisis but rather to discuss the cultural basis for such a crisis. Particular attention will be given to the institutional structures as expressions of our culture. SOCIAl ORGANIZATION In her book entitled Social Institutions, J. 0. Hertzler classified all social institutions into nine 27 fimctional categories: (i) economic and industrial, (ii) matrimonial and domestic, (iii) political, (iv) religious, (v) ethical, (vi) educational, (vii) communications, (viii) estl1etic, and (ix) healtl1. Institutions exist to carry on each of these functions in all cultures, regardless of their location or relative complexity. Thus, it is 'not surprising that one of the analytical criteria used by anthropologists in the study of various cultures is the comparison and contrast of the various social institutions as to form and relative importance. A number of attempts have been made to explain attitudes and behavior that are commonly associated with one institutional function as the result of influence f~:om p~~;~~ably iildependent institutional factor. The classic example of such an analysis is The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism by Max Weber. In this significant work ·weber attributes much of the economic and industrial growth in Western Europe and North America to capitalism, which, he argued, was an economic form that developed as a result of the religious teachings of Calvin, particularly spiritual determinism. Social scientists have been particularly active in attempting to assess the influence of religious teaching and practice and of economic a LEWIS W. MONCRIEF • The Cultural Basis of Our Environmental Crisis motivation on other institutional forms and behavior and on each other. In this connection, L. White suggested that the exploitative attitude that has prompted much of the environmental crisis in Western Europe and North America is a result of the teachings of the Judea-Christian tradition, which conceives of man as superior to all other creation and of everything else as created for his use and enjoyment. He goes on to contend that the only way to reduce the ecologic crisis which we are now facing is to "reject the Christian axiom that nature has no reason for existence save to serve man." As with other ideas that appear to be new and novel, Professor White's observations have begun to be widely circulated and accepted in scholarly circles, as witness the article by religious writer E. B. Fiske in the New York Times earlier this year. In this article, note is taken of the fact that several prominent theologians and theological groups have accepted this basic premise that Judea-Christian doctrine regarding man's relation to the rest of creation is at the root of the West's environmental crisis. I would suggest that the wide acceptance of such a simplistic explanation is at this point based more on fad than on fact. Certainly, no fault can be found with White's statement that "Human ecology is deeply conditioned by beliefs about our nature and destiny-that is, by religion." However, to argue that it is the primary conditioner of human behavior toward the environment is much more than the data that he cites to support this proposition will bear. For example, White himself notes very early in his article that there is evidence for the_ideatha:t manhas bee11 dra_!llatically altering his environment since antiquity. If this be true, and there is evidence that it is, then this mediates against the idea that the Judea-Christian religion uniquely predisposes cultures within which it thrives to exploit their natural resources with indiscretion. White's own examples weakenhis argument considerably. He points out that human intervention in the periodic flooding of the Nile River basin and the fire-drive method of hunting by prehistoric man have both probably wrought significant "unnatural'' changes in man's environment. The.3kence_ 28 23 of J udeo- Christian influence in these cases is obvious. It seems tenable to affirm that the role played by religion in man-to-man and man-toenvironment relationships is one of establishing a very broad system of allowable beliefs and behavior and of articulating and invoking a system of social and spiritual rewards for those who conform and of negative sanctions for individuals or groups who approach or cross the pale of the religiously unacceptable. In other words, it defines the ball park in which the game is played, and, by the very nature of the park, some types of games cannot be played. However, the kind of game that ultimately evolves is not itself defined by the ball park. For example, where animism is practiced, it is not likely that the believers will indiscriminately destroy objects of nature because such activity would incur the danger of spiritual and social sanctions. However, the fact that another culture does not associate spiritual beings with natural objects does not mean that such a culture will invariably ruthlessly exploit its resources. It simply means that there are fewer social and psychological constraints against such action. In the remainder of this article, I present an alternative set of hypotheses based on__ru1:tllral variables which, it seems to me, are more plausible and more defensible as an explanation of the environmental crisis that is now confronting us. No culture has been able to completely screen out the egocentric tendencies of human beings. There also exists in all cultures a status hierarchy of positions and values, with certain groups partially or totally excluded from access to these normatively desirable goals. Historically, the differences in most cultures between the "rich" and the "poor" have been great. The many very poor have often produced the wealth of the few who controlled the means of production. There may have been no alternative where scarcity of supply and unsatiated demand were economic reality. Still, the desire for a "better life" is universal; that is, the desire for higher status positions and the achievement of culturally defined desirable goals is common to all societies. 24 CHAPTER l • Perspectives THE EXPERIENCE IN THE WESTERN WORLD In the West two significant revolutions that occurred in the 18th and 19th centuries completely redirected its political, social, and economic destiny. These two types of revolutions were unique to the West until very recently. The_french revolution marked the beginnings of widespread democratization. In specific terms, this revolution invOivea-a redistribution of the means of production and a reallocation of the natural and human resources that are an integral part of the production process. ln etiect new channels of social mobility were created, which theoretically made more wealth. acc:essible to more people. Even though the revolution was partially perpetrated in the guise of overthrowing the control of presumably Christian institutions and of destroying the influence of God over the minds of men, still it would be superficial to argue that Christianity did not influence this revolution. Mter all, biblical teaching is one of the strongest of all pronouncements concerning human dignity and individual worth. At about the same time but over a more extended period, another kind of revolution was taking place, primarily in England. As White points out very well, this phenomenon, which began with a number of technological innovations, eventually consummated a marriage with natural science and began to take on the character that it has retained until today. With this revolution the productive capacity of each worker was amplified by several times his potential prior to the revolution. It alsobecame feasible to_pmdU£CO: gQodsthat were not previously producible on a commercial scale. Later, with the integration of the democratic and technological ideals, the increased wealth began to be distributed more equitably among the population. In addition, as the capital to land ratio increased in the production process and the demand grew for labor to work in the factories, large populations from the agrarian hinterlands began to concentrate in the emerging industrial cities. The stage was set for the development of the conditions that now exist in the Western world. 29 With growing affluence for an increasingly large segment of the population, there generally develops an increased demand for goods and services. The usual by-product of this affluence is waste from both the production and consumption processes. The disposal of that waste is further complicated by the high concentration of heavy waste producers in urban areas. Under these conditions the maxim that "Dilution is the solution to pollution" does not withstand the test of time, because the volume of such wastes is greater than the system can absorb and purify through natural means. With increasing population, increasing production, increasing urban concentrations, and increasing real median incomes for well over a hundred years, it is not surprising that our environment has tak.en a terrible beating in absorbing our filth and refi.1se. THE AMERICAN SHUATION The North American colonies of England and France were quick to pick up the technical and social innovations thatwere taking place in their motherlands. Thus, it is not surprising that the inclination to develop anindl!strialand manufacturing base is observable rather early in-iliicolonies. A strong trend toward democratization also evidenced itself very early in the struggle for nationhood. In fact, Thistlewaite notes the significance of the concept of democracy as embodied in French thought to the framers of constitutional government in the colonies. From the time of the dissolution of the Roman Empire, resource ownership in the Western world was vested primarily with the monarchy or the Roman Catholic Church, which in turn bestowed control of the land resources on vassals who pledged fealty to the sovereign. Very slowly the concept of private ownership developed during the Middle Ages in Europe, until it finally developed into the fee simple concept. In America, however, national policy from the outset was designed to convey ownership of the land and other natural resources into the hands of the citizenry. Thomas Jefferson was perhaps more influential in crystallizing this philosophy in the new nation than anyone else. It was his conviction that an agrarian society made up of LEWIS W. MONCRIEF • The Cultural Basis of Our Environmental Crisis small landowners would furnish the most stable foundation for building the nation. This concept has received support up to the present and, against growing economic pressures in recent years, through government programs that have encouraged the conventional family farm. This point is clearly relevant to the subject of this artide because it explains how the natural resources of the nation came to be controlled not by a few aristocrats but by many citizens. It explains how decisions that ultimately degrade the environment are made not only by corporation boards and city engineers but by millions of owners of our natural resources. This is democracy exemplified! CHAllENGE OF THE FRONTIER Perhaps the most significant interpretation of American history has been Frederick Jackson Turner's much criticized thesis that the western frontier was the prime force in shaping our societies. In his own words, If one would understand why we are today one nation, rather than a collection of isolated states, he must study this economic and social consolidation of the country .... The effect of the Indian frontier as a consolidating agent in our history is important. He further postulated that the nation experienced a series of frontier challenges that moved across the continent in waves. These included the explorers' and traders' frontier, the Indian frontier, the cattle frontier, and three distinct agrarian frontiers. His thesis can be extended to interpret the expansionist period of our history in Panama, in Cuba, and in the Philippines as a need for a continued frontier challenge. Turner's insights furnish a starting point for suggesting a second variable in analyzing the cultural basis of the United States' environmental crisis. As the nation began to expand westward, the settlers faced many obstacles, including a primitive transportation system, hostile Indians, and the absence of physical and social security. To many frontiersmen, particularly small farmers, many of the natural resources that are now highly valued were originally perceived more as obstacles 30 25 than as assets. Forests needed to be cleared to permit farming. Marshes needed to be drained. Rivers needed to be controlled. Wildlife often represented a competitive threat in addition to being a source of food. Sod was considered a nuisance-to be burned, plowed, or otherwise destroyed to permit "desirable" use of the land. Undoubtedly, part of this attitude was the product of perceiving these resources as inexhaustible. After all, if a section of timber was put to the torch to clear it for farming, it made little difference because there was still plenty to be had very easily. It is no coincidence that the "First Conservation Movement" began to develop about 1890. At that point settlement of the frontier was almost complete. With the passing of the frontier era of American history, it began to dawn on people that our resources were indeed exhaustible. This realization ushered in a new philosophy of our national government toward natural resources management under the guidance of Theodore Roosevelt and Gifford Pinchat. Samuel Hays has characterized this movement as the appearance of a new "Gospel of Efficiency" in the management and utilization of our natural resources. THE PRESENT AMERICAN SCENE America is the archetype of what happens when democracy, technology, urbanization, capitalistic mission, and antagonism (or apathy) toward natural environment are blended together. The present situation is characterized by three dominant features that mediate against quick solution to this impending crisis: (i) an absence of personal _11lQ_Ial direction concerning our treatment of our natural resources, (ii) an inability on the part of our social institutions to make adjust--ments to this stress, and (iii) an abiding faith in technology. The first characteristic is the absence of personal moral direction. There is moral disparity when a corporation executive can receive a prison sentence for embezzlement but be congratulated for increasing profits by ignoring pollution abatement laws. That the absolute cost to society of the second act may be infinitely greater than the first is often not even considered. 26 CHAPTER l • Perspectives The moral principle that we are to treat others as we would want to be treated seems as appropriate a guide as it ever has been. The rarity of such teaching and the even more uncommon instance of its being practiced help to explain how one municipality can, without scruple, dump its effluent into a stream even though it may do irreparable damage to the resource and add tremendously to the cost incurred by downstream municipalities that use the same water. Such attitudes are not restricted to any one culture. There appears to be an almost universal tendency to maximize self-interests and a widespread willingness to shift production costs to society to promote individual ends. Undoubtedly, much of this behavior is the result of ignorance. If our accounting systems were more efficient in computing the cost of such irresponsibility both to the present generation and to those who will inherit the environment we are creating, steps would undoubtedly be taken to enforce compliance with measures designed to conserve resources and protect the environment. And perhaps if the total costs were known, we might optimistically speculate that more voluntary compliance would result. A second characteristic of our current situation involves institutional inadequacies. It has been said that "what belongs to everyone belongs to no one." The maxim seems particularly appropriate to the problem we are discussing. So much of our environment is so apparently abundant that it is considered a free commodity. Air and water are particularly good examples. Great liberties have been permitted in the use and abuse of these resources for at least two reasons. First, these resources have typically been considered of less economic value than other natural resources except when conditions of extreme scarcity impose limiting factors. Second, the right of use is more difficult to establish for resources that are not associated with a fixed location. Government, as the institution representing the corporate interests of all its citizens, has responded to date with dozens of legislative acts and numerous court decisions which give it authority to regulate the use of natural resources. However, the decisiveness to act has thus far 31 been generally lacking. This indecisiveness cannot be understood without noting thaf the simplistic models that depict the conflict as that of a few powerful special interests versus "The People" are altogether inadequate. A very large proportion of the total citizenry is implicated in enviromnental degradation; the responsibility ranges from that of the board and executives of a utility company who might wish to thermally pollute a river with impunity to that of the average citizen who votes against a bond issue to improve the efficiency of a municipal sanitation system in order to keep his taxes from being raised. The magnitude of irresponsibility among individuals and institutions might be characterized as failing along a continuum from highly irresponsible to indirectly responsible. With such a broad base of interests being threatened with every change in resource policy direction, it is not surprising, although regrettable, that government has been so indecisive. A third characteristic of the present An1erican scene is an abiding faith in technology. It is very evident that the idea that teclmology can overcome almost any problem is widespread in Western society. This optimism exists in the face of strong evidence that much of man's technology, when misused, has produced harmful results, particularly in...