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Homework answers / question archive / Chapter Six Quantitative Papers The Introduction The introduction to an academic paper is the place where you try to hook the reader with an answer to the question, "Why should I care?" This is also the place where you identify the main issue that you will address in your paper
Chapter Six Quantitative Papers The Introduction The introduction to an academic paper is the place where you try to hook the reader with an answer to the question, "Why should I care?" This is also the place where you identify the main issue that you will address in your paper. Introductions are challenging to do well because you must strike a balance between promoting your topic enough to convince the reader that this is really worth reading and avoiding overstating your case. If you were indeed a prosecuting attorney, you might want to appeal immediately to questions of justice, to use strong emotional language, or to direct the jury's attention to those "fat cats sitting smugly there in their expensive suits." However, in formal research writing we do not use such grand gestures to attract readers' attention. Indeed, it is a common rookie mistake in writing introductions to such papers to try to persuade readers by appealing boldly and/or solely to moral arguments, excessively relying on the heart-tug element of the issue. Often the drama or tragedy of the issue is overstated. For example, consider this introduction to a paper about mothers, fathers, new children, and work: Sixty-four percent of mothers of preschoolers are in the labor force (U.S. Census 2010). Therefore, millions of families across the country struggle every day with the conflict of work and family and agonize over whether to let other people raise their children or stay home and perhaps damage their own careers. Why do they do it? Any or all of these claims may be true, but there are many loaded, and likely overstated, claims that threaten the author's credibility. Indeed, the 64 43
44 Writing Quantitative Papers percent statistic is correct, but whether this translates into millions of people struggling with a conflict is not obvious, and it may be overdramatizing the paste to say that people are agonizing over letting others raise their kids Even if it is true, this style of writing comes across as either preachy, gr close, or tabloid-esque. Finally, while a rhetorical question can be useful in some cases, here it strikes a tone of shocked criticism, as if the author were saying, "Holy cow! What were they thinking?" The writer could communicate the same issues in a more even-handed way that would invite readers who agree or disagree to continue reading further. For example, try this as a possible improvement: Sixty-four percent of mothers of preschoolers are in the labor force (U.S. Census 2010). While many families appear to be juggling the work-family con- flict adequately, others claim to feel guilty about leaving their children in the care of other adults and perhaps missing out on important events in their young children's lives. Meanwhile, the potential setbacks in their careers make it dif- ficult for young parents to consider taking time out of the labor force. This revision is not perfect, but it avoids some of the inflammatory specu- lation about agonizing and avoids making it sound as if the author is accus- ing people of letting others raise their kids. Even if that's what the author thinks, she or he would need to carefully consider the audience and ask whether the tone being struck will inspire or turn off readers. There may be times when the nature of your writing should provoke response. But make sure that you are choosing this for some other effect than just to get people to read further. If you alienate your readers in the first paragraphs, they may just toss the paper (or be put in a foul mood when grading it). So beware of excessively provocative language and tone, and watch out for overstatement that might damage your credibility. Let's add to this revision some material about what the paper will do: Sixty-four percent of mothers of preschoolers are in the labor force (U.S. Census 2010). While many families appear to be juggling the work-family con- flict adequately, others claim to feel guilty about leaving their children in the care of other adults and perhaps missing out on important events in their young children's lives. Meanwhile, the potential setbacks in their careers make it dif- ficult for young parents to consider taking time out of the labor force. This paper identifies the characteristics of young mothers and fathers that are associated with full- and part-time employment while the first child is still an infant. Unlike earlier studies that rely on cross-sectional data, this analysis follows the early life histories of young families to locate how not only demo- graphic characteristics but also the timing and order of events influence the likelihood, for new mothers and fathers, of returning quickly to paid work.
people ing the Quantitative Papers: The Introduction ir kids. , gran- Notice that this revision introduces the topic, sets some of the context 45 eful in for why we would care, and then goes on to state briefly what the analysis is about. I were You'll notice that unlike a mystery novel, a quantitative research paper uses the introduction to give away the plot right away. It may or may not anded tell the ending and conclusion, but it makes clear to the reader where this eading is going. In this example, we use the present tense in the last paragraph. Others prefer a past or future tense. Your professor or editor can guide you about what he or she wish he wishes to see. J.S. In my opinion, this sample introduction needs to be further elaborated, con- including material about other interested parties (employers) and about the how this paper relates to the existing body of knowledge about this topic. Consider the next revision. The goal has been to show that the topic is ung dif- important, interesting, and newsworthy but without asserting these things in a heavy-handed way. I've italicized the new material I added about other parties and previous research. Decu. Sixty-four percent of mothers of preschoolers are in the labor force (U.S. Census ccus- 2010). More than 90 percent of fathers of preschoolers are in the labor force 1thor (U.S. Census 2000). While many families appear to be juggling the work-family ask conflict adequately, others claim to feel guilty about leaving their children in the care of other adults and perhaps missing out on important events in the young children's lives. Meanwhile, the potential setbacks in their careers make it diffi- oke cult for young parents to consider taking time out of the labor force. Employers ffect are also concerned about this issue as the state continues to pass and consider the new laws providing family leave and as they seek to retain skilled workers. ood Most previous research has emphasized the human capital arguments for one, new mothers' rapid return to work. However, little effort has been made to understand how the order of events such as parents' educational attainment, cohabitation, marriage, first job, promotions, and the like are related to the 0: decision of mothers to remain in the labor force. And no research has explored how these characteristics influence the likelihood that new fathers will take time off to be with their new children. This paper identifies the characteristics of families and young mothers and fathers that are associated with full- and part-time employment while the first child is still an infant. Unlike earlier studies that rely on cross-sectional data, this analysis follows the early life histories of young families to locate how not only demographic characteristics but also the timing and order of events paid work. influence the likelihood, for new mothers and fathers, of returning quickly to The second paragraph briefly states how this paper is an improvement on previous work. Your paper may be an improvement on or a replication of
46 Writing Quantitative Papers Previous work-either is fine. Just specify what you think. The last paragraph also emphasizes how this paper is an improvement and lets the reader know What to expect in the methodology. It also makes clear what the research question really is, namely, "What personal characteristic haracteristics are correlated with full- and part-time work for new fathers and new mothers, and how does the order of prior events influence the likelihood of that work?" to summarize, a good introduction accomplishes the task of introducing the topic and convincing the reader to believe that this is worth learning about without appealing to overdramatizing the importance of the project, And it points out why this research is worth doing and makes it clear that you did not do it just because it was there. Try reading the introductions to several research journal articles to see how they do it. You will find differ- ent strategies and indeed a wide variety in quality of introductions, showing just how challenging it is to write a good introduction. Finally, I offer some precious advice I once received from a graduate mentor (Becker 2007). Write the introduction after the paper is done. Papers shift directions as they are being produced, and too much time is often wasted writing the perfect introduction to a paper that never actually turns out to be what was introduced. It is not uncommon to find unpub- lished manuscripts by professors and final papers turned in by students in which the introduction and the paper do not really match because the author never checked back after writing the paper to see if the introduction still introduces the paper. Reference Press . Becker, Howard S. 2007. Writing for Social Scientists. Chicago: University of Chicago
raph now arch with the ing Chapter Seven ng ct. at Quantitative Papers to The Literature Review ifferent judges may disagree over exactly how much instruction they think jurors need to be able to render a verdict informed by the law. But smart attorneys, aware of whatever rules judges set, make strategic decisions about how much information and background to present to jurors and in which order to present it. From the vast array of previous legal precedent and from the existing applicable laws, the attorney must decide how to explain it to jurors so that they will know how to interpret the evi- dence to be presented. There is a parallel challenge you face as a writer of sociology. Sociology instructors and others who request sociological writing (such as philanthro- pies, government agencies, and your supervisor) often disagree over what precisely one should include when writing a literature review. This disagree- ment can pose a problem for you as you write. So first, be aware of who is setting the rules and what he or she expects. If you have to keep it short, that expectation will suggest a different strategy than if you are asked to be expansive and inclusive. If you are writing for a well-informed audience, then you will include different things than if you are writing for a general audience unfamiliar with your topic. Most of the decisions you will make revolve around these three things: What should be included? How long should it be? How should it be organized? the chapter. Author's Note: Thanks to Rebecca Warner for help in creating an earlier draft of
48 Writing Quantitative Papers Thankfully, there are some common expectations among many of the revi authorities we write for. At the minimum, a literature review is the place have where the author situates the research paper in the existing research erature. That is, this is the part of the paper w! r where you help the reader see rath how what you are doing is related to the projects that other pe er people have for COL completed. In Chapter 4, which addresses borrowing well from the literature, I used or the analogy of summarizing conversations between researchers. As a writer, tion you have much influence over how to recount those conversations. You can col be strategic and creative in how you arrange that summary of the of the research. de As you read different published research papers, you will see that the orga- in nization of materials in a quantitative paper is likely to be around the dif- ferent variables that are measured and analyzed. This chapter focuses on a very typical structure of a quantitative literature review wherein the existing conversations in the literature are arranged in a strategic way. A Flexible Prescription for a Literature Review Many quantitative social science literature reviews in academic articles and books, as well as in grant proposals, graduate theses, and government agency reports, tend to be organized first around the dependent variable; then they proceed to discussions of how other variables may affect that dependent variable. This makes sense because we often write about cause- and-effect questions such as, "How much does education influence attitudes about abortion?" or "How big an impact does this arts program have on children's engagement in school?" That is, the effect (attitudes, engagement, etc.) is the important outcome we are interested in (hence, we discuss it first), and we are seeing which variables influence that important outcome (hence, we subsequently turn attention to those other variables). Take a look at the general outline for organizing a literature review (see p. 49), and then consider flexing it a bit as you need to. With the addition of other independent variables, this outline would expand further. b The opening paragraphs of a literature review (item I in the Outline for Literature Review box) usually accomplish at least a couple tasks. First, they help us conceptualize the dependent variable, recounting how others have conceptualized it, argued about its definition, or otherwise puzzled over it. Second, they help the reader understand the current status of the dependent variable out in the population. If you were writing about (rather than prosecuting the perpetrator of) age discrimination, you would use the opening paragraphs of the literature
asa aeid au earch lit- Quantitative Papers: The Literature Review eader see aney and review to help readers understand what age discrimination is, how people have defined it, and who does the defining (e.g., How have social scientists, 49 rather than lawyers or politicians, defined it? How old must a person be could report what is known abou used for one to regard discrimination as a case of age discrimination?). Then you s a writer about the level of age discrimination in society s. You can or the number of lawsuits or legislative actions related to age discrimina- tion and how that mig at might be changing over time. By the end of the opening research couple paragraphs, the reader should be able to say, "I understand which the orga- dependent variable will be studied, I understand some of the complexities d the dif- in defining this variable (and what the author thinks about that), and I have uses on a out in society." some sense of how the attributes of the dependent variable are distributed existing Outline for Literature Review 1. Discussion of dependent variable (conceptualization, parameters, trends) II. Influence of first independent variable on dependent variable articles a. Theoretical rationale, predicted relationship between variables, and rnment causal mechanism by which independent variable affects dependent riable; variable ct that III. Influence of second independent variable on dependent variable cause- a. Theoretical rationale, predicted relationship between variables, and itudes causal mechanism by which independent variable affects dependent ve on variable ment IV. Relationship of independent variables and rationale for controlling one ISS it come or more a. Theoretical rationale, predicted relationships between variables, ke a causal mechanism, and logical rationale for controlling for one 49), ther Typically, quantitative sociological papers seek to explain why a depen- for dent variable varies. That is, why is there more of it in one group or place irst, than another, or why does it covary with other variables? Often sociologi ers cal theories help us to anticipate what those other important variables are, led how they will vary with our dependent variable, and why. So theory usually the begins to appear in the next paragraphs, justifying both the exploration of how a particular independent variable will have an impact and the means by which we think the independent variable influences the dependent variable.
Writing Quantitative Papers 50 In the case of age discrimination, let's say we are interested in which groups are more or less likely to experience age discrimination. Perhaps wh know something about Marxist feminist theory that tells us that in a market economy, people are valued for what they can produce and that women are often regarded as problematic workers because they more often end up having to care for not only kids but aging parents. As we mis predict that women would experience age discrimination more often that men because employers might be less accommodating for employees who have extensive family obligations (such as elder care), and thus, women in the latter years of their careers would more often experience age discrimina- tion. Notice that the theory has helped us to select an independent variable (gender), to make a prediction (women more than men), and to provide a theoretically informed causal mechanism (employer bias combined with women's culturally prescribed family care roles). So in this next block of paragraphs (item II in the Outline for Literature Review box), we would make the case that, rooted in Marxist feminist theo- ries about workplace relations, we would expect women more than men to experience age discrimination. In these paragraphs, we would cite these arguments from theorists and present to the reader existing research find- ings that give us reason to anticipate in our study that this is what we will find. By this point, the reader should be able to say, "The author expects to find that women more than men experience age discrimination, and here's on this topic.) why." (See Chapter 4, Borrowing Well From the Literature, for more help Next, we turn our attention to additional variables that also are likely to be important (item III in the Outline for Literature Review box). Presum- ably theory should help us select those variables. That's not always the case. Sometimes our interest in other variables is not inspired by a theory, but their importance or our interest needs to be logically defended. Sometimes we wish to control for a variable to determine whether a correlation that exists in the literature is spurious or somehow suspect. For example, if oth- ers have found gender differences in age discrimination, perhaps you think it's not because of gender bias but because of the kinds of jobs women versus men hold. Let's say that our reading from Marx also tells us that the kinds of jobs people have make a big difference in their control over the flexibility of their jobs and also in how employers will think about these employees. That is, we might predict that managers and professionals will have a better chance of avoiding or fighting off age discrimination than people in jobs that are physically demanding or jobs for which it would be relatively easy to find a replacement. That line of argument would help us hypothesize that professionals and managers are less likely than other workers to experience age discrimination. As in the previous paragraphs,
Quantitative Papers: The Literature Review our goal here is to justify why we are looking at type of job as an influence likelihood of experiencing age discrimination, to hypothesize an antici- 51 pared pattern, and to provide some rationale for why this is what we expect. The remaining couple paragraphs (in this simple example of a paper with only three variables), help the reader understand how gender and type of job are related to each other and what we expect to learn by controlling for type of job. Here we could again draw on theory to help us explain why women are more concentrated in some jobs than in others, but we can also cite existing research that reports statistics on occupational sex segregation. By controlling for type of job, we may anticipate that the gender gap in age dis- crimination will be smaller in both blue-collar and managerial/professional jobs, showing that some of the apparent gender effect is because of the jobs that women versus men hold. This is where things get really interesting and- Itically, and it is the job of the sociological writer to explain why we control for this variable and what we should expect. By the end of the literature review, readers should be able to recount the main independent variables, their predicted effect on the dependent vari- able, and the reasons for considering more than one independent variable. In other words, when they turn to the next section of the paper (Data and Methods) they should have a sense of what to expect. Using the Literature to Develop a Causal Model Once we have some idea as to the order of the paragraphs in the literature review, we can start to arrange the existing research materials in a way that conveys the relationship between variables. One technique for sorting out what we have found in the research literature is to first make a list of the findings (empirical observations and patterns) and of theoretical claims found in the relevant citations that you have located. Let's continue with our earlier example about age discrimination. Here is the causal model that we just articulated, where experiencing age discrimination is believed to be affected by gender and by the jobs that workers have. Gender Experienced age discrimination Job type (manager / not)
2 Writing Quantitative Papers The picture merely communicates to us that (1) one's gender and jol each affect the chances of experiencing age discrimination and (2) because earlie gender and job are related, it's possible that the effect of sender is partially the I explained by the job one has (i.e., perhaps women are less likely to be mayy F agers, in a position to enjoy a less rigid job schedule). (aut Now let's consider these statements that one might be able to write down by t after scanning the research literature on related topics. (Note: These are link made-up citations for illustrative purposes only.) mig Juarez (2001): The odds of being a manager are twice as high for a 50-year-old em top man than for a 50-year-old woman. you Krzynski (2005): Qualitative interviews of California assembly-line workers and managers reveal that assembly-line workers have greater struggles than managers ho at juggling work-family conflicts. rel longo (2007): Age discrimination lawsuits in a three-year period in Ohio reveal that two thirds of the plaintiffs were workers with very little managerial authority. Schnell (2008): In a multistate region in the Northeast, secretaries were more likely than their female supervisors to describe ways that their organizations made it difficult for them to take care of family obligations. Habab (2006): Employer surveys indicate that there is a bias toward younger workers, with employers believing that younger workers are more energetic, have fewer family obligations, and cost less. Lighthouse (1999): In private interviews, employers admitted that they found it difficult to accommodate workers who had repeated work-family difficulties care issues. and that elder care issues were as common among their workers as were child Oleander (2008): In a nationally representative sample of American workers, female employees were twice as likely as male employees to be able to recount with family demands. stories of how employers had made it difficult for them to get time off to deal management. Palanka (1997): Throughout the life course, women repeatedly are socialized toward caregiving roles and are given fewer opportunities to move up into Grey (2002): Age discrimination is harder to prove in court than other kinds of employment discrimination cases. Sanchez (2000): Marxist feminist theorists argue that women are regarded by employers as problematic because of their usual family responsibilities. When we have a list of such findings, we then can consider how these items can be assembled, keeping in mind (1) the loose structure suggested
Quantitative Papers: The Literature Review the literature. earlier and (2) the goal of recounting a conversation that one can imagine mil 53 For visual learners, it might be useful to write down the different citations (author and year) on the different arrows in the diagram that are explained by those authors. For example, the Juarez study illustrates the arrow that links gender and job. Other sources may not illustrate an arrow but rather might help describe a variable or concept, such as the Habab citation that emphasizes employers' mindsets. Imagine those kinds of citations going on top of the boxes. By sorting out resources this way, you can strategize how you'll use the array of resources located in a literature search. See how in the following draft I try to assemble these items, and notice how I have sorted out the items shown into the locations that illustrate each relationship (arrow) or variable (box): While many characteristics of employees are rewarded and punished in the workplace, age can be the most confusing for employers. Habab (2006) reports that employers generally have a bias toward younger workers because of their perceived skills, minimal family obligations, and lower salaries. Whether employers specifically and a nd actively discriminate against older workers is not always clear. Grey (2002) points out that compared to other kinds of employ- ment discrimination, age discrimination is particularly difficult to prove. Notice that I use Grey and Habab to conceptualize the dependent variable, age discrimination. ] Because employers value having workers with few family obligations, there is good reason to anticipate that among older workers women will experience age discrimination more often than men (Sanchez 2000). Ongoing processes of gender socialization and persistent family obligation patterns make women more likely than men to have ongoing work-family obligations because of the problem of elder care (Palanka 1997). Women in general report higher rates of inflexible treatment by employers (Oleander 2008). Evidence from employers supports this expectation as well. Lighthouse (1999) reports that employers admit to having difficulty being flexible with workers and that elder care issues are as common now as child care issues. Thus, it is likely that as older working women embrace the culturally prescribed elder care responsibility, they will become more difficult employees to keep, and employers will more likely find ways to either release them or avoid hiring them. These processes are likely to be less pronounced for men. [Observe how I use four of the sources to focus on the hypothesis that gender would affect age discrimination.] However, the gender difference in age discrimination may be partially explained by the kinds of jobs that men and women have. Job authority can have a significant impact on the chances of experiencing work-family conflict. Krzynski (2005) and Tongo (2007) find that work-family struggles and age discrimination both seem to be associated with having less workplace author- ity. Schnell (2008) found that among female employees, secretaries more often
54 Writing Quantitative Papers than managers identified ways that they experienced the inflexibility of their employers. Therefore, there is good reason to believe that the direct effect of workplace authority would influence older employees' experiences of work place demands and hence of age discrimination by employers. [In this para graph, I focus on three other sources that link job and age discrimination.] Because older women are less likely than men to be in positions of mana- gerial authority, they may be more vulnerable to age discrimination. Juarez (2001) computes that for older men the odds of being a manager are twice those for older women. The processes by which this pattern emerges are well known. [Here I start focusing on the other causal arrow-gender and job.] Notice that in assembling the literature review this way, I have cre- ated some conversations, such as in the reference to Krzynski, Tongo, and Schnell, all of whom had insights that illuminated one idea. Or consider the second paragraph wherein you might imagine getting Palanka, Oleander, and Lighthouse to talk and see just how consistent their findings are. In this example, perhaps, you can see how an author can capture a sense of the ongoing, sometimes disorganized set of conversations out in the lit- erature and do so in a way that provides the rationale for a researchable question. By doing this, one avoids merely quoting the other authors' words but reports efficiently the substance of their findings and conclusions. As you read articles that will be referenced in your research, analyze a few literature reviews to see how they set it up. You will observe that there is a strategy to how skilled writers set up their literature reviews so the reader can anticipate what will be included in the subsequent analysis.
