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Dissertation Process and Deliverables Matrix   Visit CDS Central

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Dissertation Process and Deliverables Matrix

Visit CDS Central. Under the Doctoral Journey tab, click Introduction and download the College of Doctoral Studies Dissertation Guideto complete Parts 1 and 2 of the assignment.

Part 1: Matrix

Complete the following matrix. Note: The Dissertation Phases are different from the Dissertation Chapters.

Part 2: Reflection

On the next page, describe and evaluate your learning experience for the week by providing a paragraph for each of the following:

• To continue your development as a fully autonomous scholar, practitioner, and leader, what is required from you in the weeks ahead?
• What has gone well for you and what do you find challenging?

The paper template below is formatted to APA 7^th edition and includes information on writing a well-structured scholarly paragraph (The MEAL Plan).

Include APA in-text citations and references from the Weekly Overview as well as other sources.

College of Doctoral Studies Dissertation Guide A COMPREHENSIVE DISSERTATION DEVELOPMENT AND ALIGNMENT HANDBOOK *Please note: This document is subject to changes, which will be recorded in Appendix B: Change Log. Students and Faculty should check back for changes and download current versions often. (Last Updated 3/3/2021) Table of Contents Content Page Overview................................................................................................................................... 1 The Dissertation Process ............................................................................................. 2 The Dissertation Team ................................................................................................ 4 Topic Selection and Alignment to the Degree Program......................................................... 5 Method and Design Selection and Alignment to Research Objectives ................................. 7 Overview of Methods and Designs ............................................................................. 8 Research Design Selection and Alignment ............................................................................. 13 Qualitative Design Selection and Alignment ............................................................. 14 Action Research .............................................................................................. 14 Appreciative Inquiry ....................................................................................... 19 Case Study ....................................................................................................... 22 Delphi Technique............................................................................................ 26 Ethnography .................................................................................................... 29 Grounded Theory ............................................................................................ 31 Narrative Inquiry............................................................................................. 35 Needs Assessment ........................................................................................... 38 Phenomenology .............................................................................................. 40 Program Assessment ....................................................................................... 43 Quantitative Design Selection and Alignment .......................................................... 46 Correlational Research ................................................................................................ 46 Experimental and Quasi-experimental Research .......................................... 49 Ex Post Facto (Causal Comparative) .............................................................. 52 Factor Analysis ................................................................................................ 55 Q-Methodology ............................................................................................... 58 ii Mixed-Method Research and Alignment ................................................................................ 61 Method and Design Selection Summary................................................................................. 65 Doctoral Phase 1: The Prospectus............................................................................................ 66 Alignment of the Prospectus Elements ...................................................................... 69 Doctoral Phase 2: Précis Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................... 71 Doctoral Phase 3: Concept Review Chapter 2: Literature Review .......................................... 76 Doctoral Phase 4: The Proposal: Chapters 1 - 3....................................................................... 80 Alignment of the Proposal Elements .......................................................................... 85 Proposal Assessment Rubric ................................................................................................... 87 Institutional Review Board (IRB) ........................................................................................... 88 Doctoral Phase 5: The Dissertation: Chapters 1 - 5 ................................................................ 89 Alignment of the Dissertation Elements .................................................................... 95 Dissertation Assessment Rubric .............................................................................................. 97 Oral Defense............................................................................................................................. 98 Final Dissertation Editing (FDE) ............................................................................................ 99 College of Doctoral Studies Dissertation Format Requirements............................. 106 Final Dissertation Editing (FDE) Checklist ................................................................ 112 Appendix A: Dissertation Template ....................................................................................... 115 Appendix B: Change Log......................................................................................................... 145 iii Overview This guide provides comprehensive information on University of Phoenix College of Doctoral Studies practitioner program dissertation development steps and criteria. The overview section describes the dissertation process and dissertation team. The Topic Selection and Alignment to the Degree Program section describes each of the practitioner degree programs offered at the College of Doctoral Studies and discusses potential areas for research. The Method and Design Selection and Alignment to Research Objectives describes the research methods and provides a brief overview of the various associated designs to assist in comparison and selection between the different designs. The Research Design Selection and Alignment provides detailed information regarding the designs to assist in understanding their applicability in research and provide resources for further understanding of the designs. In addition, this document describes the five phases of the dissertation process and provides guidance on development and alignment of the prospectus and the dissertation chapters associated with each of the five phases. The Proposal Assessment Rubric is used to evaluate Chapters 1 through 3 of the dissertation and the Dissertation Assessment Rubric is used to evaluate the completed dissertation. The Institutional Review Board (IRB) and Oral Defense sections briefly describe these important dissertation journey milestones, and the Final Dissertation Editing (FDE) section describes the dissertation formatting requirements. Finally, Appendix A: Dissertation Template provides a template for the full dissertation, including information and strategies on completion of each section of the dissertation. The practitioner programs are situated within our Scholar-Practitioner-Leader™ (SPL) Model and aligned to our mission of developing doctoral leaders who conduct research for creative action and guide diverse organizations through effective decisionmaking. We hope that you will find this guide useful throughout every phase of the doctoral process and remember to enjoy the journey and allow it to help you realize your passion by helping you create research that will contribute to your professional field! 1 The Dissertation Process The dissertation process occurs in five phases, as depicted below. The information below the figure describes the five phases and deliverables further. Students should use courses in each Phase to build upon each Phase deliverable. Students are allowed to dovetail course materials from content and research courses to build upon each Dissertation Journey Phase. Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 5 Prospectus Précis (draft Chapter 1) Concept Review (draft Chapter 2) Quality Review Methods: Proposal Chapters 1-3 Quality Review Final: Dissertation Chapters 1-5 Doctoral Phase 1 – Prospectus (Outline of the planned dissertation study) Prior to 1/2/20 DOC/700 (5 weeks) LDR/711A (8 weeks) RES/709 (8 weeks) RES/724 (8 weeks) Qualitative Methods and Design DOC/705R - Year 1 Residency (5 days) Deliverable: Prospectus 1/2/20 and Newer • BUS/700, EDD/700 or DHA/700 (8 weeks) • LDR/711A (8 weeks) • RES/709 (8 weeks) DOC/714S – (8 weeks) - Deliverable: Prospectus • • • • Doctoral Phase 2 – Précis (see Phase 1 courses also): • • • Prior to 1/2/20 RES/710 (8 weeks) RES/720 (8 weeks) Two core program courses (8 weeks each) • • • 2 1/2/20 and Newer RES/724 (8 weeks) Program Content Requirement (8 weeks) Program Content Requirement (8 weeks) • • DOC/720R - Year 2 Residency (3 days) - Deliverable: Précis DOC/715 (8 weeks) - Deliverable: Précis Doctoral Phase 3 – Concept Review • • Prior to 1/2/20 Three core program Courses(8 weeks each) DOC/723 (8 weeks) - Deliverable: Concept Review • • 1/2/20 and Newer Two Content Program Courses (8 weeks each) DOC/723 (8 weeks) - Deliverable: Concept Review Doctoral Phase 4 – QRM: Proposal (Chapters 1 – 3) • • • • Prior to 1/2/20 Research elective course (8 weeks) One core program course (8 weeks) Year 3 Residency (8 days comprised of a 5 day course and a 3 day course) *Doc/741 (8 weeks) – Deliverable: Proposal Chapters 1-3 • • 1/2/20 and Newer Two Content Program Courses (8 weeks each) *Doc/741 (8 weeks) – Deliverable: Proposal Chapters 1-3 Doctoral Phase 5 –QRF: Dissertation (Chapters 1 – 5) • • Prior to 1/2/20 Two core program courses (8 weeks each) *Doc/742 (8 weeks) – Deliverable: Dissertation and Oral Defense • • • • 1/2/20 and Newer IRB Review and Approval (occurring concurrently) One Content Program Course (8 weeks) DOC/719S (8 weeks) *Doc/742 (8 weeks)– Deliverable: Dissertation and Oral Defense *Dissertation continuing enrollment courses are available and require written Chair and URM approval prior to scheduling. 3 The Dissertation Team Dissertation committees include three faculty members Chair, University Research Methodologist, and Panel Validator, each having a specialized role. Role of Doctoral Student – Dissertation Phases 1-5 Doctoral students are accountable to write all chapters of the proposal and dissertation both while enrolled in dissertation classes and independently outside of designated dissertation courses. Students’ select dissertation topics that reflect gaps in the literature or problems identified from their practitioner experience. Students must choose dissertation topics aligned with their degree programs. Doctoral students should use work completed in content classes as a foundation for building Chapter 2; the Literature Review. Using work from prior classes, or dovetailing, enables students to capitalize on their work without duplicating effort. Doctoral students will rely on committee feedback to build robust, cohesive and quality research projects aligned with the College of Doctoral Studies’ mission to enhance students’ positions as a Scholar-Practitioner-Leaders in their industries. Role of Chair – Assigned upon completion of Dissertation Phase 2 Dissertation Chairs, as subject matter experts, manage students’ proposal and dissertation phases, including alignment with degree program, research feasibility, rigor, and overall quality. Chairs facilitate DOC/723 and DOC/742, and DOC/723 and DOC/742 extension courses. The Chair leads the oral defense. Role of the University Research Methodologist (URM) (first committee member) – Assigned upon completion of Dissertation Phase 2 The URM manages proposal and dissertation research method and design to ensure alignment of methodological strategies, rigor, and quality. The URM facilitates DOC/741 and DOC/741 extension courses. The URM is assigned at the time the chair is assigned. The URM reviews research problem, purpose, research questions/hypothesis, and research method design at DOC/723 for alignment. The URM participates in the oral defense. Role of the Panel Validator (PV) (second committee member) – Assigned upon completion of Dissertation Phase 4 The Panel Validator is the subject matter expert who reviews Chapters 1-3 for scope and provides feedback to ensure Chapters 4 and 5 offer robust and innovative industry recommendations aligned with the Scholar-Practitioner-Leader (SPL) Model. The Panel Validator participates in the oral defense and provides APA final review for the entire dissertation. 4 Topic Selection and Alignment to the Degree Program The initial step in achieving dissertation alignment is selecting a topic aligned with the program of study, also referred to as the industry or discipline of study. The topic should reflect an existing problem within the industry. The following information provides brief examples of dissertation topics that align with the various practitioner programs currently offered as University of Phoenix doctoral studies. For detailed program information, visit www.phoenix.edu/doctoral. Please note, specializations are for program-specific versions prior to 1/2/2020. Doctor of Business Administration (DBA): Dissertation topics for the DBA program may focus on various commercial ventures including business startup activities, small to medium businesses, business operations, business processes, finance, or marketing activities. Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership (EDD): The EDD program focuses on K-12 education. The dissertation may focus on broad aspects associated with these educational levels including test scores, drop out decisions, and examining academic success. Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership with a specialization in Curriculum and Instruction (EDD/CI): The CI specialization of the EDD program often focuses on the curricula during the K-12 educational programs. The dissertation may also explore teaching methods, strategies, and instruction used in the design or implementation of new educational programs. Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership with a specialization in Educational Technology (EDD/ET): The ET specialization within the EDD program focuses on how technology is used or can be used to facilitate learning. The emphasis may include examination of currently used techniques or development of recommendations for improving use of technology in the classroom. Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership with a specialization in Higher Education Administration (EDD/HEA): The HEA specialization within the EDD program focuses on college and university level 5 instruction. The dissertation may focus on broad aspects associated with higher education including student retention, student engagement, drop out decisions, instructional approaches and strategies, design or implementation of new educational programs, or use of technology to facilitate learning. Doctor of Health Administration (DHA): The DHA program is intended to develop executive level health care professionals. Added program focus is on health administration research within clinical settings, hospital settings, or home health settings. Dissertations often focus on policies, processes, and procedures involved in the delivery of care, leadership of health care professionals and support staff, resources, and cost effectiveness and efficiency. Doctor of Management in Organizational Leadership (DM): The DM program focuses on organizational leadership and management. Dissertation writers may explore leadership behavior, leadership skills, human resources, employee satisfaction, employee engagement, management of organizational resources, operational processes, change management, or business processes and procedures within an organization. Doctor of Management in Organizational Leadership with a specialization in Information Systems and Technology (DM/IST): The DM/IST program focuses on the use of technology within organizations. Relevant dissertation topics include the current or proposed use of information technology (IT) within the organizational setting. 6 Method and Design Selection and Alignment to Research Objectives Once the student selects a dissertation topic and identifies a problem, the student should develop a research purpose that aligns with the problem then select a research method and design aligned with the purpose. Note that alignment between the purpose and design is an iterative process; the purpose should be modified to reflect the selected design. The following information describes the three research methods. The most commonly used method within practitioner doctoral programs is qualitative followed by quantitative. The third method, mixed-method, combines qualitative and quantitative approaches. 7 Overview of Methods and Designs Qualitative Research • Qualitative research is used to address a social problem by gaining an understanding of participants’ opinions, perceptions, and feelings, or by reviewing documents. • Qualitative data are narrative data collected using approaches such as interviews, questionnaires, focus groups, observations, or archival documents. • The researcher is typically very involved with the participants during the research. • The sampling type is usually purposeful and the sample size is typically small. Qualitative Research and the Inductive Process • Qualitative research is based on inductive reasoning. • Induction is a "bottom up” approach that moves from the research questions to narrative interview or questionnaire data or observations, to patterns and themes based on these data, to broad conclusions about those data, and can lead to a theory. . Findings and Conclusions/ Theory Qualitative interview, questionnaire, or observation data developed into Themes Research Questions Strengths and Weakness of Qualitative Research • Strengths: 8 • o Provides a wide variety of designs. o Flexibility in data collection approaches. Weaknesses: o Selecting an appropriate design can be a challenge for novice researchers. o Results cannot be generalized due to small samples and limited context. Qualitative Research Designs The qualitative method includes several designs. The following information provides a brief synopsis of many of the major qualitative designs. Detailed information about the implementation of each of these designs is provided in the Qualitative Design Selection and Alignment section. • Action research: The researcher works collaboratively with an organization or institution to address a problem or create policy. There are various types of action research; each differs regarding the researcher’s role and the objectives. Appreciative inquiry: Similar to action research, but rather than focusing on existing problems it focuses on building on the existing positive aspects of an organization and envisioning innovative enhancements for the future. • Case study: The researcher examines an existing bounded “case” such as an organizational or institutional process using multiple sources of data to triangulate knowledge about the case. Case studies require an explicit “type.” Delphi technique: Delphi research uses a panel of subject matter experts to examine consensus on topics such as best industry practices or the future of the topic under study. This technique is usually accomplished in two to three rounds. Ethnography: The researcher examines a culture to identify the cultural norms, social structures, and other patterns. • Grounded theory: The researcher seeks to generate a new theory or a theoretical model that explains a process or action. The theory is “grounded” in data from these participants. This design implies that no theory currently exists. 9 Needs assessment: This research is the first step for an institution or organization considering the development of a program or training. The research focuses on defining the program requirements or training competencies. • Phenomenology: This research focuses on first-hand “lived experiences” of participants who have all experienced a common personal phenomenon. This design seeks to explore participants’ internal dialog about the phenomenon. Program assessment (or program evaluation): The researcher evaluates an organizational or institutional program to measure the actual program outcomes against its intended outcomes. Quantitative Research • Quantitative research is used to address a social problem by quantifying participants’ opinions, perceptions, and feelings. This is not limit what is quantifiable to humans as phenomena, instrumental measures (e.g. BP/pulse measures, weight loss/gain, expenses), retention rates and error rates are also quantifiable. • Quantitative data are numerical data collected using approaches such as surveys or big data sets, which are statistically analyzed to test hypotheses. • The researcher may not be directly involved with participants during the research. In a pretest/posttest design, the researcher could be active. • The sampling type is usually random, and the sample size is typically large and based on the population size. There are times when a researcher may not use random sampling. Quantitative Research and the Deductive Process • Quantitative research is based on deductive reasoning. • Deduction is a "top down” approach that transitions from general to specific by developing hypotheses and statistically testing the hypotheses with quantitative data to develop findings and conclusions. 10 Research Questions and Theoretical Hypotheses Quantitative Data to Test the Hypotheses Findings and Conclusions Strengths and Weakness of Quantitative Research • Strengths: o Tests and validates hypotheses. o Straight-forward data collection and analysis; easy to replicate. o The large sample size allows the results to be generalized to the population. • Weaknesses: o Theoretical conceptualization of the study isolates variables, which limits the measurable impact of other intervening variables. o Measuring relationships between the variables does not determine causeand-effect. Quantitative Research Designs The quantitative method includes several designs. The following list describes the most common quantitative designs used in doctoral research. Each of these designs is detailed in the Quantitative Design Selection and Alignment section. Correlational research: The researcher is interested in determining the relationship between two or more quantifiable variables. It is important to note that correlation does not determine cause-and-effect. Experimental research: The researcher randomly assigns participants to experimental and control groups and manipulates one or more variables to determine cause-and-effect. 11 Ex post facto (or causal-comparative): The objective of this design is to identify causal relationships among variables that cannot be manipulated such as gender, ethnicity, or birth order. Causal research can be used to determine cause-andeffect between variables. Factor analyses: The researcher analyzes interrelationships within a set of variables or objects to construct a reduced set of variables, called factors, which contain the essential information in the original larger set of variables. • Q-methodology: The researcher examines participant’s views about a topic as the participants rank-order the Q sample. The Q sample is developed based on a literature review. The resulting Q sort is used to determine subjectivity. Quasi-experimental research: This design is similar to experimental research; however, whereas experimental research requires a treatment (manipulated variable), control, randomization, and able to be replicated, quasi-experimental is when any one or more of these characteristics of design is not possible. 12 Research Design Selection and Alignment This section expands on the brief design descriptions above and defines implementation of the major qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method designs that align well with the doctoral practitioner programs offered at UoPx. The information is provided to assist in understanding differences between the various designs, to provide alignment information, and to provide examples of how to implement each research design. Each research design section includes brief information on the research objectives of the design and includes external links for further information. Additionally, each section describes how to construct and align the dissertation problem statement, purpose statement, significance of the study, methodology section, and research questions with the design. The designs listed are not fully inclusive; other designs may be acceptable, but please note that hybrid or “boutique” designs should be avoided. Once an appropriate design is selected it is imperative to become independently informed of how to correctly implement the design. Refer to the recommended references listed for each design for further information. 13 Qualitative Design Selection and Alignment Action Research The purpose of this section is to describe the implementation of action research. This design, which is often associated with education or healthcare research, allows the researcher to seek solutions to an organizational problem or a broader societal problem collaboratively with the members of the organization under study. There are four different approaches to action research which are color coded throughout this document; Action research (AR), Participative research (PR), Participative action research (PAR), and Technical action research (TAR). For the basic action research (AR) design the participants are usually limited to the management team; for PR the participants are those directly involved in the process; for PAR the participants are often intra-team representatives from throughout the organization. This section should also describe appropriate data collection and analysis. The researcher role within AR is to collaborate with organizational leadership to lead data collection based on available data and management interviews, analyze the current process, recommend specific changes, implement the changes, and evaluate the results. Within participative research (PR) the role of the researcher is to develop understanding based on the tacit knowledge of the employees and managers. Data are collected via interviews and archival documentation, evaluated, and reduced to clear information such as process flows and communication flow diagrams. The researcher shares the information with the employees and managers to facilitate collaborative change recommendations. Participative action research (PAR) requires the researcher and employees to collaboratively resolve a major organizational problem or address an organizational level decision; the results of PAR are designed to influence policy and practice. Examples of PAR include tiger teams or blue-ribbon panels in which participants who are impacted by the problem are brought together from across the organization to creatively address a systemic issue by planning and implementing the change. The researcher shares control of the process design with the employees. 14 Technical action research (TAR) is collaborative in that the researcher collaborates with the leadership or process owner, but the research typically does not include collaboration with other organizational employees. In this approach the research objectives are developed by the organization or by an external facilitator rather than by the researcher. The researcher shares the information with the leadership; however, the primary objective is to create or test a theory and publish the findings such as within a doctoral dissertation. The discussion below describes how to implement each approach when developing the various sections of a dissertation. The following link further describes the objective and implementation of action research; Defining and implementing action research Problem Statement: Discuss what problem will be addressed by the research. Since action research is typically based on the needs of a single organization rather than a broad issue, it is acceptable to cite the organizational leadership as “personal communication” (see p. 179 of the APA manual). In contrast, participative action research (PAR) may be focused on a broader societal issue rather than an organization specific problem, and technical action research (TAR) focuses on a broad social science issue in order to develop or test a theory. Purpose Statement: The purpose statement should outline the method (qualitative) and design, such as action research, participative research, or participatory action research. Describe the research participants, your role in the research, and their role in the research. The purpose statement also should state the objectives, and the objectives must align with the design. Action research (AR) focuses on improving organizational procedures from a processoriented perspective; the goal is to collaborate with the leadership or process owner to improve a process from an advisor perspective before, during, and after the process change. Participative research (PR) includes creation of knowledge based on the tacit knowledge of employees and managers involved in the process; the focus is inclusion of the participants. Implementation of a PR design requires researcher and employee 15 commitment during the project to collaboratively address a problem. The researcher enables the participants to “solve their own problems” (Elden, Reason, & Rowan, 1981, p. 259). Participative action research (PAR) requires the researcher and employees to collaboratively resolve a major organizational problem or address an organizational level decision; the results of PAR are designed to influence policy and practice. Examples of PAR include tiger teams or blue-ribbon panels in which participants who are impacted by the problem are brought together from across the organization to creatively address a systemic issue by planning and implementing the change. The researcher shares control of the process design with the employees. Technical action research (TAR) focuses on a broad social science issue in order to develop or test a theory. Rather than primarily focusing on improving a process used by an organization, the principal intent of PAR is to add to the body of knowledge. Significance of the Study Describe how changing the process, addressing the problem, or influencing the organizational policy and practice might benefit the organization. For PAR the resultant change may have a larger societal impact or may be transferable to societal issues. For TAR studies the resultant recommendations should have a potential societal impact. Research Methodology All action research approaches are typically qualitative. Discuss use of the qualitative method and the specific action research design to be used. Research Questions As a qualitative study research questions must be included, but hypotheses should not be included. Example research questions for Action Research (AR): Since AR includes assessment before, during, and after the process change, appropriate research question might include; R1. What factors are contributing to the process issues? R2. What changes can be implemented to create prospective process improvement? R3. What were the impacts of the implemented changes? 16 Example research questions for Participative Research (PR): Since PR is limited to the planning and implementation phase and collaborates with the employees and managers, appropriate research question might include; R1. What are the process owners’/managers’ perceptions of factors contributing to the process issues? R2. What are the employees’ perceptions of factors contributing to the process issues? R3. What changes can be implemented to create prospective process improvement while best meeting the needs of employees? Example research questions for Participative Action Research (PAR): Since PAR is limited to the planning and implementation phase, and collaborates with the employees and managers to resolve a major organizational problem or address an organizational level decision and influence policy and practice, appropriate research question might include; R1. What are the process owners’/managers’ perceptions of factors contributing to the issue? R2. What are the potential impacts to the organization issues? R3. What are the potential benefits and challenges of each option for addressing the issue, and which option might produce the optimal results? R4. What policy and practice changes must be implemented to facilitate the selected option, what is the expected outcome for the organization, and is the solution transferable to broader societal issues? Example research questions for Technical Action Research (TAR): Since TAR usually relies on research objectives developed externally and focuses on a broad social science issue in order to develop or test a theory and add to the body of knowledge, appropriate research question might include; R1. What are the stakeholder’s research objectives or theory to be tested? R2. How can these objectives be met, or how can this theory be tested within the participating organization? R3. How might the results be used to improve the participating organization? R4. How are the results transferable to the broader societal issue, and how do the results contribute to the body of knowledge? 17 Recommended Action Research References Argyris, C., & Schön, D.A. (1989). Participatory action research and action science compared. American Behavioral Scientist, 32, 612–23. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412985383.n6 Chevalier, J.M., & Buckles, D.J. (2013). Participatory action research: Theory and methods for engaged inquiry. Routledge UK. Elden, M., Reason, P., & Rowan, J. (1981). Human inquiry: A sourcebook of new paradigm research. J. Wiley. Greenwood, D. J., & Levin, M. (2006). Introduction to action research: Social research for social change. Sage. Gustavsen, B. (2008). Action research, practical challenges and the formation of theory. Action Research, 6(4), 421–437. https://doi.org/10.1177/1476750308094130 Hall, B.L. (1975). Participatory research: An approach for change. Convergence, 8(2), 24–32. https://www.academia.edu /317054/ Participatory_ Research_ An_ Approach_for_Change Kindon, S.L., Pain, R., & Kesby, M. (Eds.). (2007). Participatory action research approaches and methods: Connecting people, participation and places. Routledge UK. Minkler, M., & Wallerstein, N. (Eds.). (2008). Community-based participatory research for health: From process to outcomes. Jossey-Bass. Reason, P. (Ed.). (1995). Participation in human inquiry. Sage UK. Reason, P., & Bradbury, H. (Eds). (2008). The Sage handbook of action research: Participative inquiry and practice. Sage. Selener, J.D. (1997). Participatory action research and social change: Approaches and critique. Cornell University. Whyte, W.F. (Ed.). (1991). Participatory action research. Sage. 18 Appreciative Inquiry Appreciative inquiry (AI) is a change management approach that is typically conducted in organizations. Therefore, this design is typically associated with the DM or DBA programs, but this design can be accomplished within other institutions such as healthcare or educational institutions. AI is an organizational improvement approach that focuses on the positive aspects of the organization rather than directly attempting to address and resolve existing problems. This design was originally developed and discussed in an article by Cooperrider and Srivastva (1987). AI can be used to improve current processes or organizations or to generate new ideas and recommendations for the organization under study. Note that the positive approach of implementing the AI design for addressing organizational problems has an important benefit in gaining the organization’s approval for conducting the research. Organizational stakeholders are more likely to allow researchers to conduct a study designed to improve a process or an organization than to examine an existing organization issue, such as using a case study approach to investigate a problem. According to Kessler (2013), Cooperrider’s “4D” AI model involves four phases. During the discovery phase the researcher collects participant’s reflections and stories regarding the positive aspects of the organizational process under study. The second phase, dream, is a collaborative effort to imagine an idealized state. This step often involves development of a graphical representation. The third phase, design, involves realistic planning of the steps required to attain the vision created in phase two. The destiny phase focuses on developing a set of recommendations for practitioners and leaders based on the collection and analysis of employees’, stakeholders’, and the researcher’s organizational process improvement insights. The following links provide information and videos that introduce appreciative inquiry; Introduction to appreciative inquiry Cooperridder videos 19 Problem Statement Discuss the organizational deficit to be addressed by the study. If the purpose is to generate new ideas and recommendations for the organization under study then discuss the process or section that requires improvement. Since this application is typically based on the needs of a single organization rather than a broad issue it is acceptable to cite the organizational leadership as “personal communication” (see p. 179 of the APA manual). If the proposed improvements can be implemented across the industry then discuss the industry-wide deficit as the problem. Purpose Statement The purpose statement should state that the method is qualitative and the design is appreciative inquiry. The purpose statement also should state the objectives of the research such as to examine the current processes and recommend improvements. This section should also state the type of organization or institution, the program objectives, and participants or stakeholders involved in the current processes. Significance of the Study Describe the potential benefits of the proposed organizational change such as to create efficiencies, reduce operational costs, increase customer and/or employee satisfaction, or create improved organizational outcomes. Proposed Research Methodology The appreciative inquiry design is typically associated with the qualitative method but may be conducted as qualitative supported by quantitative data if quantitative data will also be collected and analyzed. Research Questions Example AI research questions might focus on the first three phases of the 4D model, such as; R1. What are stakeholders’ reflections and stories regarding the positive aspects of the current organizational process? 20 R2. What idealized future state do stakeholders envision? R3. What steps are required to attain the vision? Note that the fourth phase of the 4D model, destiny, will be discussed in chapter 5 of the dissertation. Therefore, it is not necessary to include an explicit research question to address this final phase. Recommended Appreciative Inquiry Resources Barrett, F. J., & Fry, R. E. (2005). Appreciative inquiry: A positive approach to building cooperative capacity. Taos Institute Bushe, G. R. (2012), Appreciative inquiry: Theory and critique, in Boje, D.; Burnes, B.; Hassard, J., The Routledge companion to organizational change. Routledge UK, pp. 87-103 Cooperrider, D. L., Barrett, F., & Srivastva, S. (1995). Social construction and appreciative inquiry: A journey in organizational theory. In D. Hosking, P. Dachler, & K. Gergen (Eds.), Management and organization: Relational alternatives to individualism (pp 157-200). Avebury. Cooperrider, D. L., Sorenson, P., Yeager, T., & Whitney, D. (Eds.). (2003), Appreciative inquiry: Foundations in positive organization development. Stipes. Cooperrider, D. L., & Srivastva, S. (1987). Appreciative inquiry in organizational life. In R. W. Woodman & W. A. Pasmore (Eds.), Research in organizational change and development (pp 129-169). JAI Press. Cooperrider, D. L., Whitney, D., & Stavros, J.M. (2008), Appreciative inquiry handbook (2nd ed.). Crown Custom Publishing Whitney, D., & Trosten-Bloom, A. (2003), The power of appreciative inquiry: A practical guide to positive change. Berrett-Koehler 21 Case Study A case study involves extensive exploration of a bounded case, which can be defined as a specific organization, situation, or process. The researcher must be able to clearly define and create limits around the subject to be studied (Merriam, 1998). As Merriam (1998) pointed out, “A case study design is employed to gain an in-depth understanding of the situation and meaning for those involved. The interest is in process rather than outcomes, in context rather than a specific variable, in discovery rather than confirmation” (p. 19). Three of the most prominent case study methodologists are Robert Yin, Robert Stake, and Sharan Merriam. Researchers using the case study design should become familiar with and cite the work of all three authors. The link below discusses the various perspectives of the three theorists in designing and implementing a case study; Yin Stake and Merriam case study differentiation Case studies include two unique requirements—they must include a type and they must be supported by multiple sources of evidence. These two requirements are described below. Multiple sources. The multiple sources requirement may be fulfilled using two or more of the six sources defined by Yin (2009): • Documentation • Archival records • Interviews • Direct observations • Participant-observations • Physical artifacts It is important to keep in mind that the multiple sources of data must not only be collected; they must also be analyzed and triangulated to create the results in Chapter 4. 22 The document accessed via the following link provides additional information on these sources of evidence: Case study sources of evidence - Yin Optionally, the multiple sources may be obtained using a stratified sample from two of more different populations of participants. For example, an educational research may involve perspectives from a sample of teachers, a sample of administrators, and a sample of parents. These data sources must be triangulated during data analysis phase to view the bounded case from various perspectives. Single case studies, defined as a study of a single individual, are incapable of providing conclusions beyond the individual under study (Tellis, 1997). Note that a case study of a single individual is not considered a rigorous enough design for a dissertation. Case study types. Yin (2009) defined the three most common types of case studies; explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive. Stake (1994) additionally defined three types; intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. These six types are briefly defined below. Although these are the most commonly used types other types may be used. Explanatory. An explanatory case study design is used to explain why a phenomenon occurs. In explanatory case studies, the focus is to explore phenomena in real-world settings (Yin, 2009). Exploratory. An exploratory case study is a technique used to collect more indepth data about what is occurring. Exploratory case studies are used to explore phenomena where no defined outcomes are foreseeable (Yin, 2009). Descriptive. Descriptive case studies are based upon an already established theory. In descriptive case studies, a population is examined and data collected about that population, which is compared to a theory supporting the phenomenon being observed (Yin, 2009). Intrinsic. Stake (1994) defined an intrinsic study as focused on examining a particular case because the case itself is of interest. 23 Instrumental. The goal of an instrumental case study is to provide insight into an issue or problem or to enhance an existing theory (Stake, 1994). Collective. In a collective case study several cases are examined in order to understand a problem, phenomenon, or situation (Stake, 1994). Review information on case studies and also select a specific type of case study. See the following; Case study information – Tellis volume 1 Case study design and Implementation - Baxter and Jack Problem Statement Discuss the existing issue within the bounded case to be addressed by the study. If the purpose is to generate new ideas and recommendations for the organization under study, then discuss the process or section that requires improvement. Since this application is typically based on the needs of a single organization rather than a broad issue it is acceptable to cite the organizational leadership as “personal communication” (see p. 179 of the APA manual). If the proposed improvements can be implemented across the industry, then discuss the industry-wide deficit as the problem. Purpose Statement In addition to stating that the method is qualitative, the purpose section of a case study must describe both the type of case study and the multiple sources of evidence to be used. The purpose statement also should state the objectives of the research such as to examine a specific situation within an organization or institution. Significance of the Study Describe the potential benefits of the proposed study such as to explore the situation in order to make recommendations for improvement. Proposed Research Methodology Case studies are typically associated with the qualitative method but may be conducted as qualitative supported by quantitative data if quantitative data will also be collected and analyzed. 24 Research Questions The research questions should reflect the multiple sources of data. For example, when using a stratified sample and archival documents; R1. What are school administrators’ perceptions of the high absenteeism in high school? R2. What are teachers’ perceptions of the situation under study? R3. What are parents’ perceptions of the situation under study? R4. Based on documentation, how has the situation changed during the 2018-2019 school year? Recommended Case Study Resources Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. Jossey-Bass Publishers. Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. Revised and expanded from qualitative research and case study applications in education (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. Stake, R. E. (1994). Case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp 236-247). Sage. Stake, R. E. (2013). Multiple case study analysis. Guilford Press. Thomas, G. (2011). How to do your case study: A guide for students and researchers. Sage. Yin, R. K. (2013). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). Sage. 25 Delphi Method Technique The Delphi Technique can be used to forecast a future state within the technology industry, to gain consensus on industry best practices, or to examine healthcare experts’ opinion on health and disease trends. Therefore, design can be particularly useful for DM/IST, DM, or DHA research. This technique was developed in in 1950s by the RAND Corporation to forecast the impact of technology. See the link below. Student should also review Nominal Group Technique (NGT) when contemplating Delphi to ensure alignment to the appropriate technique. NGT is best for working on best practices whereas most Delphi studies focus on forecasting future solutions. RAND corporation Delphi information A key element of this design is that it relies on a panel of subject matter experts. Although this design was originally created for face-to-face interaction between the panel members, current studies typically use a modified Delphi in which the expert panel are geographically dispersed and do not interact directly. The researcher facilitates a two to three-round iterative process to collect and analyze the experts’ opinions in order to converge on themes, generate statistical agreement data, and reach consensus. The first round involves open-ended questions submitted to the expert panel in order to create a sub-set of common threads, or themes. The second round typically requires the expert panel members to rate the themes on a Likert-type scale in order to identify their level of agreement. The third round, when utilized, is typically another narrative data collection. The link below discusses the use of the rounds of during data collection and analysis. Delphi rounds Problem Statement Discuss the unknown nature of the topic under study. For example, the future technological state is not known, the trend of a healthcare issue is unknown, or best industry practices have not been identified. The unknown nature of the problem must be stated in literature and the problem must be cited. 26 Purpose Statement The purpose statement should specifically state that the objective of the research is to obtain consensus based on industry experts. Example: The purpose of the proposed Delphi study will be to gain consensus of opinion from a national panel of healthcare experts on strategies to reduce the nursing shortage Significance of the Study Describe the potential benefits of the proposed study such as to develop industry best practices based on expert consensus. Proposed Research Methodology Delphi studies are often associated with the qualitative method but since Round 2 involves a Likert-type scale data collection and analysis this design may be referred to as qualitative supported by quantitative data. Research Questions The research questions should mirror the purpose. For example; R1. What are industry experts’ best practices in organizational strategic planning? R2. What is the level of consensus between industry experts’ best practices in organizational planning? Recommended Delphi Resources Graham, B., Regehr, G., & Wright, J. G. (2003). Delphi as a method to establish consensus for diagnostic criteria. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 56(12), 1150-6. doi: 10.1016/s0895-4356(03)00211-7 Hasson, F., & Keener, S. (2011). Enhancing rigour in the Delphi technique research. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 78(9), 1695-1704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2011.04.005 Hasson, F., Keeney, S., & McKenna, H. (2000). Research guidelines for the Delphi survey technique. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 32(4). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11095242 27 Linstone, H. A., & Turoff, M. (2011). Delphi: A brief look backward and forward. Technological Forecasting & Social Change 78(9), 1712–1719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2010.09.011 Linstone, H. A., & Turoff, M. (2002). The Delphi method: Techniques and applications. http://is.njit.edu/pubs/delphibook/ Linstone, H. A., & Turoff, M. (1975). The Delphi method: Techniques and applications. Addison – Wesley. Rowe, G., & Wright, G. (2011). The Delphi technique: Past, present, and future prospects. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 78(9). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2011.09.002 Skulmoski, G. J., Hartman, F. T, & Krahn, J. (2007). The Delphi method for graduate research. Journal of Information Technology Education, 6, 1-21. Retrieved from http://www.jite.org/documents/Vol6/JITEv6p001-021Skulmoski212.pdf Vernon, W. (2009). The Delphi technique: A review. International Journal of Therapy & Rehabilitation, 16(2), 69-76. https://doi.org/10.12968/ijtr.2009.16.2.38892 von der Gracht, H. A. (2012). Consensus measurement in Delphi studies: Review and implications for future quality assurance. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 79(8), 1525-1536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2012.04.013 Yousuf, M. I. (2007). Using experts’ opinions through Delphi technique. Practical assessment, research & evaluation, 12(4), 1-8. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/pare/vol12/iss1/4 28 Ethnography Ethnography involves a systematic study of a culture. The study should reflect the knowledge and social meanings within a cultural group. Typically, this design is associated with sociology, but it may be used to study many issues associated with practitioner degrees such as to study an organizational or classroom culture or to research ethnic cultural norms that impact healthcare decisions. Data collection may entail interviewing participants to collect their cultural perceptions, examining the behavior and interactions between members of the culture, or examining artifacts and documents that convey the culture. The following link accesses an article explaining the characteristics of ethnographic research and how this design is conducted: Conducting ethnography Note that autoethnography, a self-reflective sociological study that explores the researcher's personal experience and connects their autobiographical story to wider cultural and social meanings, is not appropriate for the practitioner programs offered at UoPx. Data collection may entail interviewing participants to collect their perceptions regarding their organizational culture, examining the interactions and behavior of the participants, or examining artifacts and documents that convey the organizational culture such as the mission and vision statements and espoused organizational values. Purpose Statement The purpose statement should specifically state that the objective of the research is to explore the problem from a cultural perspective. Significance of the Study Describe the potential benefits of the proposed study such as to improve the understanding of the culture and to provide recommendations that may improve the situation. For example, if the problem is that many African Americans are not obtaining needed mental health care due to a cultural stigma (Alvidrez, Snowden, & Kaiser, 2008), the Significance of the Study should convey that the study will result in recommendations to address and reduce the stigma. 29 Proposed Research Methodology Ethnographic research is typically associated with the qualitative method. Research Questions The research questions should reflect a focus on culture. For example; R1. What cultural norms result in many African Americans perceiving a stigma associated with mental health assistance? R2. How are these cultural norms passed down through generations? R3. How are these cultural norms changing within the generations, if at all? Recommended Ethnography Resources Alvidrez, J., Snowden, L. R., & Kaiser, D. M. (2008). The experience of stigma among black mental health consumers. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 19(3), 874-893. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.0.0058 Brewer, J. D. (2000). Ethnography. Open University Press. Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (2007) Ethnography: Principles in practice (3rd ed.). Routledge. Mannik, L., & McGarry, K. (2017). Practicing ethnography: A student guide to method and methodology. University of Toronto Press. Westbrook, D. A. (2008). Navigators of the contemporary: Why ethnography matters. University of Chicago Press. Zenker, O., & Kumoll, K. (2010). Beyond writing culture: Current intersections of epistemologies and representational practices. Berghahn Books. 30 Grounded Theory The grounded theory design has a history of debate even among its germinal methodologists; however, this design can be a great option for topics in any practitioner program for which a theoretical basis is lacking. The objective of this design is to develop a theory regarding the topic under study. The theory must be grounded in data collected for the research. The following websites provides an overview of grounded theory: Overview of grounded theory Grounded theory originated with Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss (1967). These theorists later diverged on their principles of this design and the design has evolved slightly based on follow on work by Kathy Charmaz. The following website provides a historical perspective of the design: Founding theorists views of grounded theory Data analysis of grounded theory data is usually conducted manually, using the constant comparative approach which consists of open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. The following website provides a simplified example of the analysis method based on three example research questions: Constant comparative coding Although this design can be used for any practitioner program the following source focuses on the use of grounded theory in healthcare: DHA example of a grounded theory study An important point to keep in mind is that the purpose of grounded theory is to create a theory, which may be presented as a visual model or as hypotheses to explain or define the phenomenon under study. This theory or model must be presented in the final chapter of the dissertation. Keep in mind that creating a theory or theoretical model is an excellent way to develop publishable contribution to the body of knowledge. 31 Purpose Statement The purpose statement for grounded theory studies must include the objective of theory development. Significance of the Study Describe the potential benefits of contributing a new theory to the body of knowledge. For example, discuss why developing a model that explains the phenomenon might be beneficial, and to whom. Proposed Research Methodology Grounded theory research is typically associated with the qualitative method. Research Questions The final research question should focus on development of a theory or a theoretical model. For example; R1: How do organizational leader/managers lead and manage multigenerational workforce members differently? R2: How has the organization transformed to attract, motivate, and retain Millennials? R3: What grounded theory can be developed to improve recruitment, motivation, and retention of Millennials? Example Resultant Theoretical Model The following figure depicts an approach for developing the resultant theory. The theory may be stated in narrative or may be depicted as a figure, as shown below; 32 Key stakeholders and factors influencing attracting, motivating and retaining Millennials (Carpenter & de Charon, 2017) Recommended Grounded Theory Resources Carpenter, M. J., & de Charon, L. C. (2014). Mitigating multigenerational conflict and attracting, motivating, and retaining millennial employees by changing the organizational culture: A theoretical model. Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture. 5(3), 68-84. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpoc.21154 Charmaz, K. (2000). Constructivist and objectivist grounded theory. In N. K. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed., pp. 509–535). Sage. Charmaz, K. (2002). Grounded theory analysis. In J. F. Gubrium & J. A. Holstein (Eds.), Handbook of interview research (pp. 675–694). Sage. Charmaz, K. (2003). Grounded theory. In J. A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods (pp. 81–110). Sage. Charmaz, K. (2005). Grounded theory in the 21st century: A qualitative method for 33 advancing social justice research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. E. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 507– 535). Sage. Glaser, B. G. (1992). Basics of grounded theory analysis. Sociology Press. Glaser, B. G. (1998). Doing grounded theory: Issues and discussions. Sociology Press. Glaser, B. G. (2001). The grounded theory perspective: Conceptualization contrasted with description. Sociology Press. Glaser, B. G. (2002). Constructivist grounded theory? Qualitative Social Research, 3(3). http://www.qualitative-research.net/fqs/fqs-eng.htm Glaser, B. G. (2003). Conceptualization contrasted with description. Sociology Press. Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Aldine. Locke, K. (1997). Rewriting the discovery of grounded theory after 25 years? Journal of Management Inquiry, 5(1), 239–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/105649269653008 Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques (2nd ed.). Sage. 34 Narrative Inquiry Narrative inquiry emerged in the 20th century as a study of experiences as understood through the stories of the participants. The primary theorists associated with this design are D. Jean Clandinin and F. Michael Connelly (2000). When conducting this design, the researcher creates rich description of these experiences and explores shared meaning of the participants’ experiences. According to Connelly and Clandinin (2006), and Haydon and van der Riet (2017), the exploratory structure for narrative inquiry should include: • Temporality – the time of the experiences and how the experiences could influence the future; • Sociality – cultural and personal influences of the experiences; and; • Spatiality – the environmental surroundings during the experiences and their influence on the experiences This design was originally rooted in the work of John Dewey (1938) and used in the field of education. In addition to participant interviews narrative inquiry may rely on data collected from archival sources such as autobiographies, journals, letters, and photos. The paper accessed via the following link provides an overview of this design, as described by one of the key theorists; Narrative inquiry - Clandinin In addition to the education field narrative inquiry can be very applicable within healthcare as narrative stories are useful to convey the meanings of patients or healthcare staff in story form. The following link provides an article on using this design within the healthcare field; Narrative inquiry in healthcare Although this design may also be used within business related programs, narrative inquiry focuses on “personal and social context” (Wang & Geale, 2015, p. 196). Therefore, any DM, DM/IST, or DBA studies using this design should be limited to research of a personal nature such as experiences associated with employment issues. Process centered topics do not align with narrative inquiry. 35 Purpose Statement The purpose statement for narrative inquiry studies must include the objective of examining participants’ experiences as understood through their stories. The elements of temporality, sociality, and spatiality should be included in the stated study objectives. Example: The purpose of the proposed narrative inquiry will be to understand the meaning that younger members of Indian tribes place on older tribal members’ stories about higher education. Significance of the Study Describe potential benefits to the industry of examining the stories and experiences of the participants. Proposed Research Methodology Narrative inquiry research is typically associated with the qualitative method. Research Questions The research questions should focus on temporality, sociality, and spatiality. For example; R1: What were the participants’ feelings about the experience (name specific experience)? (temporality) R2: What were the cultural factors and what were the interrelationships with other people involved in the situation (name specific situation)? (sociality) R3: What was the physical environment during the experience and how did the environment impact the experience (name specific experience)? (spatiality) Additional research question examples: R1: What do college age Native Americans living on a reservation feel about leaving the reservation to attend college? (temporality) R2: How do cultural factors and other people influence their feelings about leaving the reservation to attend college? (sociality) R3: How do their current environment and the college environment impact their decision? (spatiality) 36 Recommended Narrative Inquiry Resources Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. Jossey-Bass. Clandinin, D. J., Huber, J., Huber, M, Murphy, S., Murray Orr, A., Pearce, M., et al. (2006). Composing diverse identities: Narrative inquiries into the interwoven lives of children and teachers. Routledge. Clandinin, D. J., & Rosiek, (2006). Mapping a landscape of narrative inquiry: Borderland spaces and tensions. In D. J. Clandinin (Ed.), Handbook of narrative inquiry: Mapping a methodology (pp. 35–75). Sage. Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1990). Stories of experience and narrative inquiry. Educational Researcher, 19(5), 2 - 14. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x019005002 Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (2006). Narrative inquiry. In J. L. Green, G. Camilli, & P. Elmore (Eds.), Handbook of complementary methods in education research (3rd ed., pp. 477 - 487). Lawrence Erlbaum. Haydon, G., & der Riet, P. van. (2017). Narrative inquiry: A relational research methodology suitable to explore narratives of health and illness. Nordic Journal of Nursing Research, 37(2), 85–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/2057158516675217 Wang, C. C., & Geale, S. (2015). The power of story: Narrative inquiry as a methodology in nursing research. International Journal of Nursing Sciences, 2(2), 195-198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnss.2015.04.014 37 Needs Assessment Needs assessment is used to identify deficits between the current organizational state and the desired state and provide recommendations regarding how to address the gap between the current and desired states. The objective of needs assessment research is to address a problematic situation or to enhance the organization by improving operations, programs, or the organizational structure. This design establishes priorities to address the situation and determine recommendations for solutions by addressing criteria for determining how to allocate resources such as people, funds, and facilities. The following link accesses an overview on this design; Needs assessment overview The needs assessment design is often associated with the fields of business and education, such as the DM, DM/IST, DBA and EDD programs. However, this design can also be used for DHA program research. See the following example; Needs assessment healthcare example Purpose Statement The purpose statement for needs assessment should include the objectives of assessing the organizational gap and recommending initiatives to address the deficit. Significance of the Study Describe potential benefits of implementing the recommendations. For example, describe the organizational advantages that may be created by identifying and addressing the needs. Proposed Research Methodology Needs assessment research is typically associated with the qualitative method but may include a quantitative component. Therefore, qualitative supported by quantitative data is also an option. 38 Research Questions The research questions should focus on identifying the gap between the current and the desired organizational states and recommending resources or changes to address the deficit. For example; R1. What is the desired situation within the organization? R2. What is the current situation within the organization? R3. What is the gap between the current and desired situations? R4. What resources or organizational changes can address the gap? Recommended Needs Assessment Resources Altschuld, J. W., & Kumar, D. D. (2010). Needs assessment: An overview. Sage. Burton, J., & Merrill, P. (1991). Needs assessment: Goals, need and priorities. In L. J. Briggs, K.L. Gustafson, & M.H. Tillman (Eds.), Instructional design: Principles and applications (2nd ed.). Educational Technology. Kaufman, R., Rojas, A. M., & Mayer, H. (1993). Needs assessment: A user's guide. Educational Technology Publications, Inc. Ostroff, C., & Ford, J.K. (1989). Assessing training needs: Critical levels of analysis. In I.L. Goldstein (Ed.), Training and development in organizations. Jossey- Bass. Rossett, A. (1987). Training needs assessment. Educational Technology. Watkins, R., West Meiers, M., & Visser, Y. (2012). A guide to assessing needs: Tools for collecting information, making decisions, and achieving development results. World Bank. Witkin, B. R., & Altschuld, J. W. (1995). Planning and conducting needs assessments: A practical guide. Sage. 39 Phenomenology Phenomenology is based on the human consciousness works of philosophers Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger. This research design is associated with either the field of philosophy or psychology; therefore, it is typically not appropriate for studies conducted in the practitioner programs offered at UoPx. However, there are a few topics, usually within the healthcare discipline, for which this design could be applicable. Phenomenological study involves the description of personal feelings and conscious experiences of a phenomena such as “the death of a loved one, a counseling session, an illness, winning a championship football game, or experiencing a specific emotion such as guilt, anger, or jealousy” (Christensen, Johnson, & Turner, 2010, p. 368). Phenomenological experiences that have been studied in psychology and related fields include obsessive-compulsive disorder, addiction, sexual abuse, and psychotic symptoms in narcolepsy. The researcher is attempting to gain access into the participants’ inner world of the experience; the self-talk or “phenomenal space” (Christensen et al., 2010). There are multiple types of phenomenological designs including transcendental, hermeneutic, and existential. Although phenomenology studies may include other types, it is important to include a specific type within proposed phenomenological studies. A primary source for modern phenomenology is the work of Clark Moustakas. It is imperative to include this source in all proposed phenomenological studies. According to Moustakas (1994), phenomenological studies must include broad questions such as: 1. What dimensions, incidents, and people intimately connected with the experience stand out for you? 2. How did the experience affect you? What changes do you associate with the experience? 3. How did the experience affect significant others in your life? 4. What feelings were generated by the experience? 5. What thoughts stood out for you? 40 6. What bodily changes or states were you aware of at the time? 7. Have you shared all that is significant with reference to the experience? (p. 116) According to Moustakas (1994), in phenomenology noema defines how the participants experienced the phenomenon by touch, sight, or feeling, and noesis defines the participants’ perceptions of their experience of the phenomena. Epoché and phenomenological reductions should be used during the interview process to identify the noema and noesis of each participant. Data analysis should be conducted using either the seven-step modified van Kaam process or the four-step Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen process (Moustakas, 1994). The following source introduces Moustakas’ methodological theories; Moustakas phenomenology Purpose Statement The purpose statement for phenomenology should include the objective of understanding feelings and conscious experiences associated with a personal phenomenon. Example: The purpose of the proposed phenomenological study will be to gain the lived experiences of pediatric nurses who have had to tell parents their child was going to die. Significance of the Study Describe potential benefits of exploring the feelings and conscious experiences associated with a personal phenomenon. Proposed Research Methodology Phenomenology research is associated with the qualitative method. Research Questions The research questions synthesize the seven broad questions identified by Moustakas (1994). For example; R1. What are the lived experiences of pediatric nurses who have had to tell parents their child was going to die? R2. What internal conflicts do pediatric nurses describe in making the decision to tell parents their child was going to die? 41 Recommended Phenomenology Resources Christensen, L. B., Johnson, R. B., & Turner, L. A. (2010). Research methods, design, and analysis (11th ed.). Allyn & Bacon. Elliott, B. (2004). Phenomenology and imagination in Husserl and Heidegger. Routledge. Giorgi, A. (2009). The descriptive phenomenological method in psychology. Duquesne University Press. Husserl, E. (1962). Ideas: General introduction to pure phenomenology, tr. W. R. Boyce Gibson. Macmillan. Kockelmans, J. J., (1970). Phenomenology and the natural sciences: Essays and translations, Northwestern University Press. Langdridge, D. (2006). Phenomenological psychology: theory, research and method. Pearson. Moustakas, C. E. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Sage. van Manen, M. (1990). Reaching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. Althouse Press. 42 Program Assessment Program assessment, also referred to as program evaluation, is often associated with educational programs and healthcare programs, but this design can be accomplished on various programs within diverse organizations and institutions. This design involves development and implementation of a systematic approach for collecting and analyzing data to determine the effectiveness of an existing program. Within the educational field program assessment is used to determine the effectiveness of a curriculum on intended student learning, and in healthcare and other fields the objective is typically to assess the outcome of the program against its intended results. Although the phases of program evaluation differ based on the discipline, basic steps of program assessments include: • Engaging stakeholders • Describing the program • Creating the evaluation • Collecting and analyzing data • Developing conclusions • Making recommendations The following evaluation model is useful for evaluating an educational curriculum, beginning with comparing the current state to the desired state; Educational program assessment The following healthcare model is useful for evaluating healthcare programs; Healthcare program assessment Using Program Assessment in the Healthcare Programs Problem Statement Discuss the need for the program assessment. This section should include a cited problem. Programs are typically assessed either during program development or immediately after the program has been initiated; therefore, the problem might focus on use of program funding with no mechanisms to measure the program outcomes. Since program assessment is typically based on the needs of a single organization rather than a broad issue, it is acceptable to cite the organizational leadership as “personal communication” (see p. 179 of the APA manual). 43 Purpose Statement The purpose statement should state the method, which is typically qualitative. The design may be referred to as either program assessment or program evaluation. The purpose statement also should state the objectives of the assessment such as to evaluate the value of the program, to measure the actual outcomes of the program against its intended outcomes, to discover whether unintended consequences exist, and to recommend corrective measures or potential program modifications. This section should also state the type of organization or institution, the program objectives, and participants or stakeholders involved in evaluating the program. Significance of the Study Describe the potential benefits of identifying the value of the program, measuring or improving the program outcomes, possibly eliminating unintended consequences, and recommending potential program modifications might benefit the organization or institution. The following document provides support for the use of this design; Scholarly Support and Theoretical Basis for Program Assessment Research Proposed Research Methodology Program assessment studies are typically qualitative and are often supported by quantitative data. It is possible to conduct a program assessment as a quantitative quasiexperiment or experiment (see Program assessment methodology). This section should describe the researcher’s role in the study and how the stakeholders will participate in the research. Research Questions For a qualitative study research questions must be included, but hypotheses should not be included. For quantitative quasi-experimental studies hypotheses should be included to compare the control and experiment groups. 44 Example qualitative research questions might include; R1. Who are the program stakeholders and what are their roles in the program? R2. What is the context and need for the program; what are the program activities and goals? R3. What are the actual program outcomes relative to the intended outcomes? R4. What conclusions can be made about the program effectiveness and what recommendations might potentially improve the program? Recommended Program Assessment Resources Bailey, S. J., & Deen, M. Y. (2002). A framework for introducing program evaluation to extension faculty and staff. Journal of Extension (40)2. https://www.joe.org/joe/2002april/iw1.php Potter, C. (2006). Program evaluation. In M. Terre Blanche, K. Durrheim & D. Painter (Eds.), Research in practice: Applied methods for the social sciences (2nd ed.) (pp. 410-428). UCT Press. Rossi, P., Lipsey, M. W., & Freeman, H.E. (2004). Evaluation: A systematic approach (7th ed.). Sage. Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Leviton, L. C. (1991). Foundations of program evaluation: Theories of practice. Sage. 45 Quantitative Research Design Implementation and Alignment Correlational Research Correlational research is a non-experimental quantitative design, meaning that it does not involve manipulation of the situation or people. The objective of correlational research is to quantitatively measure and determine the relationship between two or more variables. Correlational research uses the terms predictor and criterion variables rather than independent and dependent variables. The measure (or behavior) being predicted is the criterion variable, and the measure (or behavior) from which the prediction is made is the predictor variable. The determined relationship between the variables does not imply a causal relationship between the variables; therefore, it is important that the proposed study does not imply that the results will determine “cause” or “effect.” Relationships or associations between variables is measured by statistics to identify the significance of the relationship or association. The following describes the meaning of significance in correlational research. Typically, the alpha should be set at .5 for social science research. Statistical significance Correlational designs use various types of statistical analyses, based on the types of quantitative data collected to measure each variable. Once data types have been identified, the appropriate statistical tests can be determined. The following links provides information on the various types of data and statistical tests. Data types Statistical tests Regression analysis may also be used for some studies to take the analysis further. Regression allows the researcher to graphically model the variables, and is widely used for prediction and forecasting. The following link provides further information on applying this type of analysis; Regression analysis 46 Problem Statement Discuss the existing issue to be addressed by examining the relationships between the study variables. Purpose Statement The purpose should convey that the study will examine the relationship between the variables, not the cause or effects between the variables. The relationship should be a statistically “significant” relationship. The purpose section must specify the predictor and criterion variables to be examined and the sources of data to be analyzed, such as the instruments to be used to collect data. Significance of the Study Describe the potential benefits of identifying the relationship between the variables to be examined. Discuss who this information will benefit and why. Proposed Research Methodology The correlational design is quantitative. Research Questions/Hypotheses This design requires both research questions and hypotheses. Note that at least one research question is required and at least two sets of hypotheses should be included. The following is an example of such research questions/hypotheses. R1: What is the relationship between emotional intelligence, as measured by the Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI), and satisfaction with co-workers, as measured by the Job Descriptive Index (JDI)? H10: There is not a significant relationship between the Self-Awareness scale of the ECI and the co-worker satisfaction scale of the JDI. H1A: There is a significant relationship between the Self-Awareness scale of the ECI and the co-worker satisfaction scale of the JDI. 47 H20: There is not a significant relationship between the Social Awareness scale of the ECI and the co-worker satisfaction scale of the JDI. H2A: There is a significant relationship between the Social Awareness scale of the ECI and the co-worker satisfaction scale of the JDI. H30: There is not a significant relationship between the Self-Management scale of the ECI and the co-worker satisfaction scale of the JDI. H3A: There is a significant relationship between the Self-Management scale of the ECI and the co-worker satisfaction scale of the JDI. H40: There is not a significant relationship between the Relationship Management scale of the ECI and the co-worker satisfaction scale of the JDI. H4A: There is a significant relationship between the Relationship Management scale of the ECI and the co-worker satisfaction scale of the JDI. Recommended Correlational References Black, T. (2005). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences. Sage. Cohen, J., Cohen P., West, S.G., & Aiken, L.S. (2002). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Psychology Press. Jeon, J. (2015). The strengths and limitations of statistical modeling of complex social phenomenon: Focusing on SEM, path analysis, or multiple regression models. International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation, 9(5), 1634-1642. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/50a9/a4a1cf87575bbb83b43419102d09fc89f9 42.pdf Kellar, S. P., & Kelvin, E. A. (2014). Munro’s statistical methods for healthcare research. Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins. Levine, D., Stephan, D., & Szabat, K. (2017). Statistics for managers. Pearson. 48 Experimental and Quasi-experimental Research The objective of experimental and quasi-experimental research is to investigate cause-and-effect by utilizing a treatment or intervention for the experimental group and comparing the results to a control group who did not receive the treatment or intervention; for example, an educational or training program. The difference between experimental and quasi-experimental research is the assignment of the participants. Whereas experimental research requires random participant and group selection, such as in a double-blind experimental drug study in which neither the researcher nor the participants know who is in the experimental or control group, quasi-experimental does not. Therefore, quasi-experimental research is much more common than experimental research within social science research such as the practitioner doctorates offered at UoPx. The first link below describes several types of research used within true experimental research. The second and third links focus on quasi-experiments. Experimental research Quasi-experimental research Types of quasi-experimental research Problem Statement Discuss the existing issue to be addressed by examining the results of a treatment or intervention. Purpose Statement The purpose should convey the treatment or intervention to be introduced and state that the study will examine the effects/outcomes of the treatment or intervention. This section must also specify the type of design, such as a pretest-posttest or interrupted time series (see Types of quasi-experimental research). Significance of the Study Describe the potential benefits of identifying the effects of the treatment or intervention. Discuss who this information will benefit and why. Proposed Research Methodology Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are quantitative. 49 Research Questions/Hypotheses This design requires both research questions and hypotheses. Note that at least one research question is required and at least two sets of hypotheses should be included. The following is an example of such research questions/hypotheses. In this pretest-posttest example the web-based tutoring program is the intervention. The dependent variable, math scores, is measured once before the intervention is implemented and again after it is implemented. R1: What is the effect of a web-based tutoring program on the math scores of 3rd grade students? H10: There is not a significant pretest difference in the math scores between the control group who did not participate in the web-based tutoring program and the experimental group who participated in the web-based tutoring program. H1A: There is a significant pretest difference in the math scores between the control group who did not participate in the web-based tutoring program and the experimental group who participated in the web-based tutoring program. H20: There is not significant pretest-to-p0stest difference in the math scores of the control group who did not participate in the web-based tutoring program. H2A: There is a significant pretest-to-p0stest difference in the math scores of the control group who did not participate in the web-based tutoring program. H30: There is not a significant pretest-to-p0stest increase in the math scores of the experimental group who participated in the web-based tutoring program. H3A: There is a significant pretest-to-p0stest increase in the math scores of the experimental group who participated in the web-based tutoring program. 50 Recommended Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research References Black, T. (2005). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences. Sage. Brown, S., & Melamed, L. (1990). Experimental design and analysis. Little Green Books. Sage. Campbell, D., & Stanley, J. (2015) Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. John Hopkins University Creswell, J.W. (1994). Qualitative & quantitative approaches. Sage. Creswell, J.W. (2004). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Sage. Levin, I. (1999). Relating statistics and experimental designs. Little Green Books. Sage. Vogt, W. (2007). Quantitative research methods for professionals. Capella University Publishing. 51 Ex Post Facto (Causal Comparative) When it is not practical or ethical to engage human research participants, the ex post facto, also referred to as causal comparative, can provide an alternative design. Ex post facto simply means after the fact, meaning that data have already been collected over a period of time and must be worked with “as is.” According to Vogt (2005), it is “any investigation using existing data rather than new data gathered specifically for the study” (p. 114). The following webpage provides various videos on the ex post facto design; Ex post facto videos The objective of this design is to investigate the cause and effect by examining differences between or within two or more groups on two or more variables using data that has already been collected (secondary data). A key a feature is that the independent variable cannot be manipulated. Researchers must establish the following conditions to justify a claim that changes in variable A cause changes in variable B: • Condition 1: Variable A (the presumed causal or independent variable) and variable B (the presumed effect or dependent variable) must be associated or related. This is called the relationship condition. • Condition 2: Changes in variable A must precede the changes in variable B. This is called the temporal order condition. • Condition 3: No plausible alternative explanations exist for the relationship between variable A and variable B. This is called the no alternative explanation condition. There are many secondary data sets in the public domain that provide opportunity to access large amounts of data, including longitudinal data. These data may contain an abundance of diverse variables allowing the researcher to explore various combinations of relationships to gain insights not previously studied. Note that because these data have already been collected, obtaining permission to conduct the study is much simpler and quicker than required with most research, which typically requires recruiting participants and collecting primary data. 52 Problem Statement Discuss the existing issue to be addressed by examining the relationships between the study variables. Purpose Statement The purpose should convey that the study will examine the effects/outcomes using secondary (archival) data to determine causes of differences that already exist between or within two or more groups. This section must specify the independent and dependent variables to be examined and the archival source of the secondary data to be analyzed. Significance of the Study Describe the potential benefits of identifying the effects between the variables to be examined. Discuss who this information will benefit and why. Proposed Research Methodology The ex post facto or causal comparative design is quantitative. Research Questions/Hypotheses This design requires both research questions and hypotheses. Note that at least one research question is required and at least two sets of hypotheses should be included. The following is an example of such research questions/hypotheses. In this example the students’ gender is the independent variable. R1: What is the effect of using a web-based tutoring program on the math and grammar scores of 3rd grade boys and girls? H10: There is not a significant difference in the academic growth in math scores between the boys and girls. H1A: There is a significant difference in the academic growth in math scores between the boys and girls. H20: There is not a significant difference in the academic growth in grammar scores between the boys and girls. 53 H2A: There is a significant difference in the academic growth in grammar scores between the boys and girls. Recommended Ex Post Facto References Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An integrated approach to research design, measurement and statistics. Sage. Giuffre, M. (1997). Designing research: Ex post facto designs. Journal of PeriAnesthesia Nursing, 12(3), 191 – 195. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1089-9472(97)80038-X Vogt, W. P. (2005). Quantitative research method for professionals. Pearson/Allyn & Beason 54 Factor Analysis Factor analysis is used to identify unobservable variables, defined as factors, based on observable variables. These factors represent underlying concepts that cannot be adequately measured by a single variable. The purpose of factor analysis is to uncover underlying factors that explain correlations among multiple outcomes, it is important that the variables studied be at least somewhat correlated. This design relies on the assumption that underlying factors can explain a complex situation. Factor analysis is typically used to understand attitudes and behaviors. The design can be used in various fields to understand behaviors and is particularly useful for DBA students seeking to identify consumer attitudes. The following links provide further information on conducting factor analysis; History and definition of factor analysis Use of factor analysis Conducting factor analysis Factor analysis example Problem Statement Discuss the existing issue to be addressed by examining the underlying factors that impact the study variables. Purpose Statement The purpose should convey that the study will identify the factors that represent the concepts underlying the study variables. Significance of the Study Describe the potential benefits of identifying the relevant factors. Discuss who this information will benefit and why. 55 Proposed Research Methodology Factor analysis is quantitative. Research Questions/Hypotheses This design does not require both research questions and hypotheses, but correlational hypotheses can be included to further the understanding of the variables. The following is an example of such research questions/hypotheses. In this example a list of survey items is compiled to measure motives for online shopping, such as time convenience, place convenience, easy price comparison, large selection, access to customer reviews, ease of shopping, time savings. This list should be developed based on literature reviews. The survey should be used to collect Likert-type data to examine the importance of each survey item, then the factor analysis should be conducted to address R1. In addition, correlation can be conducted on consumer’s demographic variables such age category and gender—see R2; R1: What factors influence consumer online shopping behavior? R2: What is the relationship between age category, gender, and online shopping behavior? H10: There is no significant difference in online shopping behavior based on age category (below 25 years, 26-40 years, above 40 years). H1A: There is a significant difference in online shopping behavior based on age category (below 25 years, 26-40 years, above 40 years). H20: There is no significant difference in online shopping behavior based on gender. H2A: There is a significant difference in online shopping behavior based on gender. 56 Recommended Factor Analysis References Child, D. (2006). The essentials of factor analysis (3rd ed.). Continuum International. Fabrigar, L.R., Wegener, D.T., MacCallum, R.C., & Strahan, E.J. (1999). Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. Psychological Methods. 4(3): 272–299. http://ww.w.statpower.net/Content/312/Handout/Fabrigar1999.pdf Mulaik, S. A. (2010). Foundations of factor analysis. Chapman and Hall Publishers. Thompson, B. (2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and applications. American Psychological Association. 57 Q-Methodology The Q-methodology design is a systematic study of participant’s subjectivity. In contrast to the factor analysis design, which involves finding correlations between variables across the participants, Q-methodology seeks correlation between participants across variables. The analysis reduces the individual viewpoints to represent the participants’ shared perspectives. This unconventional design was developed in the 1930s by William Stephenson. While some researchers argue that Q-methodology is quantitative (Rozalia, 2008) the subjective nature of the design has led others to argue that Q-methodology is mixedmethod or qualitative supported by quantitative data (Angelopulo, 2009). Q-methodology was primarily used in psychology until 1970, but is currently used in disciplines including education and business research. Q-methodology measures participants’ perspectives of value, meaning, or significance regarding researcher developed statements, defined as a Q-sort. This set of statements is viewed as a dynamic medium through which subjectivity is expressed. The researcher typically develops 20 to 100 statements relevant to the research topic based on a review of the literature. The term P-set is used to describe the participants; a P-set of 40 to 60 participants is typically adequate for a Q-methodology study. The following links describe this design further; Q-methodology overview Conducting a Q-methodology Data collection procedure is traditionally performed using a paper template and the developed statements printed on individual cards. However, there are also computer software and applications for conducting online Q sorts. The following is an example of the software specific to this design; Example Q-sort processing software 58 Problem Statement Discuss the existing issue to be addressed by examining the common attitudes or perceptions between the participants. Purpose Statement The purpose should convey that the study will examine participants’ shared perspectives. Significance of the Study Describe the potential benefits of identifying participants’ shared perspectives. Discuss who this information will benefit and why. Proposed Research Methodology While some researchers argue that Q-methodology is quantitative the subjective nature of the design has led others to argue that Q-methodology is mixed-method or qualitative supported by quantitative data. Research Questions/Hypotheses This design requires research questions but does not require hypotheses. The following is an example of such research questions. In this example the study seeks to examine common attitudes across three income levels. The Q-sort should be developed to create 20 to 100 statements regarding consumer motives during food product purchase decisions. R1. What product attributes (brand, price, convenience, and flavor) influence food product purchasing decisions for consumers with a household income of $40.000 or less? R2. What product attributes (brand, price, convenience, and flavor) influence household product purchasing decisions for consumers with a household income of $40.001 to $80.000? R3. What product attributes (brand, price, convenience, and flavor) influence household product purchasing decisions for consumers with a household income of $80.001 or more? 59 Recommended Q-Methodology References Angelopulo, G. (2009). Q methodology and the measurement of subjectivity in corporate brand perception. South African Journal of Business Management, 40(3), 21-33. https// 10.4102/sajbm.v40i3.542 Baker, R., Thompson, C., & Mannion, R. (2006). Q methodology in health economics. Journal of Health Services Research & Policy, 11(1), 38-45. https://doi.org/10.1258/135581906775094217 Brown, S. R. (1993). AA primer on Q Methodology. Operant Subjectivity, 16, 91-138. https://qmethodblog.files.wordpress.com/2016/01/brown-1993.pdf Brown, S. (1996). Q methodology and qualitative research. Qualitative Health Research, 6, 561-567. https://dx.doi.org/10.15133/j.os.1993.002 Crawford, E. G. C., Toft, Y., & Kift, R. L. (2011). Q-methodology - a good sort for global corporations. Paper presented at the 27th Annual Conference of the International Society for the Scientific Study of Subjectivity, Birmingham, UK. Q-Assessor: Objectively quantifying subjectivity. (2011). Retrieved from QAssessor.com: http://q-assessor.com Rozalia, G. M. (2008). Q factor analysis (Q Methodology) as data analysis technique. Annals of the University of Oradea, Economic Science Series, 17(4), 871-876. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/00c9/a3d3769c5c7a4c3842e2d4e21b8253bf7bcc.pdf ?_ga=2.149072497.692512256.1580235631-1992788566.1575844694 van Exel, J., & de Graaf, G. (2005). Q methodology: A sneak peak. www.jobvanexel.nl Watts, S., & Stenner, P. (2005). Doing Q methodology: Theory, method, and interpretation. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 2(1), 67-91. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088705qp022oa 60 Mixed-Method Research and Alignment Mixed-method studies are conducted when the researcher seeks to use quantitative and qualitative approaches in tandem with one another to strengthen the overall study or to accomplish something that the use of one method could not do standing al...